Introduction
The immortal line “Hell hath no fury like a woman scorned” by William Congreve serves as a gateway into understanding the rich theatrical legacy of England’s Restoration period (1660-1700). During this transformative era, marked by the monarchy’s return and the revival of theatre, a distinctive genre known as the ‘Comedy of Manners’ emerged. This theatrical form cleverly exposed society’s foibles through wit and satire, offering contemporary audiences both entertainment and social commentary. Through an exploration of this period’s historical context, notable playwrights, and lasting influence, we discover how Restoration theatre shaped not only English literature but also our understanding of human nature and social dynamics.
1. Historical Context of the Restoration Period
Restoration of the Monarchy
The Restoration period began in 1660 with the return of Charles II to the English throne after the fall of the Puritan Commonwealth. This event marked the end of the Interregnum, a time when theatres were banned under Puritan rule, deemed immoral and frivolous. With the monarchy restored, theatres reopened, and a new wave of creativity swept through English drama. Charles II, a patron of the arts, brought with him a love for theatre cultivated during his exile in France, where he was exposed to the sophisticated court culture of Louis XIV.
Social Climate
The Restoration era was characterized by a reaction against the austerity of Puritan rule. The aristocracy, now free from the constraints of moral policing, embraced a lifestyle of pleasure, excess, and sophistication. This period saw the rise of coffeehouses, salons, and theatres as centers of social interaction. French influence was particularly strong, with an emphasis on wit, elegance, and polished manners. The Comedy of Manners emerged as a reflection of this social climate, satirizing the foibles and pretensions of the upper class while entertaining audiences with its clever dialogue and intricate plots.
2. Characteristics of the Comedy of Manners
The Comedy of Manners is a genre defined by its focus on social behavior, witty dialogue, and satirical portrayal of human flaws. Below are its key characteristics:
Focus on Social Behavior
The Comedy of Manners serves as a mirror to upper-class society, meticulously examining and often satirizing the elaborate social codes, mannerisms, and etiquette of the aristocracy. These plays delve into the intricacies of courtship, marriage, and social climbing, highlighting the often absurd nature of societal conventions. The characters navigate through drawing rooms and social gatherings, where a misplaced word or improper gesture could lead to scandal or social ruin.
Use of Wit and Wordplay
Language becomes a powerful weapon in these plays, with characters engaging in verbal duels filled with double entendres, puns, and clever repartee. The dialogue is characterized by:
– Sophisticated wordplay that reveals characters’ intelligence and social standing
– Biting social commentary disguised as casual conversation
– Sharp exchanges that often mask deeper emotional currents beneath polite conversation
Stock Characters
Each character type serves a specific dramatic and social purpose:
The Fop: An overdressed, affected male character who takes fashion and manners to ridiculous extremes. Often serves as a figure of mockery, representing style without substance. Examples include Sir Fopling Flutter in “The Man of Mode.”
The Rake: A charming but morally ambiguous male protagonist who pursues pleasure without regard for social conventions. Usually wealthy, witty, and sexually adventurous, the rake often undergoes a transformation through love. Lord Dorimant from “The Man of Mode” exemplifies this character.
The Coquette: A flirtatious, manipulative woman who uses her charms to advance socially. She’s skilled in the art of seduction but often maintains plausible deniability about her intentions. Lady Wishfort in “The Way of the World” represents this type.
The Virtuous Heroine: Usually intelligent and witty, she matches the rake in verbal sparring while maintaining her moral integrity. Unlike earlier dramatic heroines, she’s not simply pure and passive but actively engages in social games while preserving her reputation.
Themes of Deception and Intrigue
The plots weave complex webs of:
– Social deception where characters maintain multiple facades
– Elaborate schemes to test lovers’ fidelity
– Cases of mistaken identity that reveal social hypocrisies
– Secret letters, meetings, and relationships that drive the action
Moral Ambiguity
This genre’s sophisticated treatment of morality is evident in several ways:
– Characters aren’t simply good or evil but display complex motivations
– Victory often goes to those who can best manipulate social conventions
– Traditional moral values are questioned rather than reinforced
– The endings may reward clever deception rather than honest behavior
The Comedy of Manners ultimately presents a sophisticated critique of society that remains relevant today. Its exploration of the gap between public behavior and private desire, the power of social conventions, and the complex nature of human relationships continues to resonate with modern audiences. The genre’s influence can be seen in contemporary social satires and comedies of manner, where similar themes of social pretense and authentic behavior are explored in modern contexts.
3. Major Playwrights and Their Works
William Wycherley (1640-1716): A master of satirical comedy who offered sharp criticism of social hypocrisy. His masterpiece “The Country Wife” (1675) remains one of the most controversial yet brilliant plays of the period. It employs the character of Horner, who pretends to be impotent to gain access to married women, demonstrating both sexual intrigue and social satire. His other significant work “The Plain Dealer” (1676) adapts Molière’s “Le Misanthrope” into a biting critique of English society.
William Congreve (1670-1729): Considered the master of Restoration comedy, Congreve’s wit and elegant style are unmatched. “The Way of the World” (1700) represents the pinnacle of the Comedy of Manners, featuring the famous characters Mirabell and Millamant whose “Proviso Scene” demonstrates sophisticated romantic negotiation. His earlier works like “Love for Love” (1695) and “The Double Dealer” (1693) showcase his brilliant dialogue and complex plotting.
George Etherege (1635-1692): Often credited with establishing the Comedy of Manners genre. His play “The Man of Mode” (1676) introduces the archetypal Restoration rake in the character of Dorimant (supposedly based on John Rochester). “She Would if She Could” (1668) demonstrates his mastery of depicting fashionable society’s intrigues.
Aphra Behn (1640-1689): The first professional female playwright in English literature. Her works like “The Rover” (1677) challenge gender conventions while working within comic traditions. The play’s heroine Hellena defies arranged marriage and pursues her own choice of partner. “The Emperor of the Moon” (1687) shows her versatility in combining farce with social commentary.
4. Themes and Motifs in Comedy of Manners
Love and Marriage
The tension between romantic love and marriage as a social contract is central. In Congreve’s “The Way of the World,” Mirabell and Millamant negotiate their marriage terms, showing how even love must accommodate social and financial considerations. Marriage is often portrayed as a battleground between personal desire and societal expectations.
Appearance vs. Reality
This theme manifests through disguises, deception, and social masks. In “The Country Wife,” Horner’s pretense of impotence reveals the gap between public reputation and private behavior. Similarly, in “The Plain Dealer,” the character Olivia maintains a false public image of virtue while being privately duplicitous.
Satire of the Upper Class
Playwrights mock the affectations and moral corruption of the aristocracy. Etherege’s “The Man of Mode” satirizes fashion-obsessed fops through the character of Sir Fopling Flutter. The plays often contrast affected urban sophistication with more genuine (though sometimes crude) country manners.
Gender and Power Dynamics
Female characters navigate restrictive social conventions while asserting their desires. Behn’s heroines particularly challenge patriarchal authority. In “The Rover,” Hellena outwits both her brother’s plans for her conventual life and the rake Willmore’s attempts at casual seduction. Wycherley’s Margery Pinchwife in “The Country Wife” transforms from naive country girl to skilled manipulator of social conventions.
These themes interweave throughout the period’s drama, reflecting the complex social dynamics of Restoration England. The playwrights used wit, satire, and complex plots to explore serious social issues while maintaining the light touch required of comedy.
Examples from texts demonstrate this masterful balance. Consider this exchange from “The Way of the World”:
Millamant: “My dear liberty, shall I leave thee? My faithful solitude, my darling contemplation, must I bid you then adieu?”
This passage reveals both the character’s wit and her genuine concern about marriage’s constraints, embodying multiple themes in a single moment.
5. Influence of French Theatre
The Restoration period was deeply influenced by French theatre, particularly the works of Molière. Charles II’s exposure to French culture during his exile led to the adoption of comedic elements such as satire, polished dialogue, and sophisticated plots. This cultural exchange enriched English drama and helped shape the Comedy of Manners.
6. Theatrical Innovations During the Restoration
The reopening of theatres brought significant changes to English drama:
– Proscenium Stages and Moveable Scenery: These innovations enhanced the visual appeal of performances.
– Actresses on Stage: For the first time, women appeared as professional actors, replacing the boy actors of the Elizabethan era.
– Audience Interaction: Theatres became social hubs, with audiences actively engaging with performances and influencing the development of the genre.
. Decline of the Comedy of Manners
The decline of Comedy of Manners can be attributed to several key factors:
1. Moral Reform Movement
The rise of moral consciousness in the early 18th century, led by critics like Jeremy Collier, dealt a significant blow to Restoration comedy. Collier’s “A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage” (1698) specifically attacked the perceived licentiousness and immortality in works by Congreve, Wycherley, and others. This criticism significantly impacted public opinion and theatrical productions.
2. Changing Social Values
The emergence of middle-class values and sentimentalism in the 18th century made the aristocratic wit and sexual frankness of Restoration comedy seem outdated and inappropriate. The rising merchant class preferred more “moral” entertainment that reflected their values.
3. Political Changes
The Revolution of 1688 and subsequent political changes led to stricter censorship and a more conservative social atmosphere. The libertine culture that had flourished under Charles II’s reign gave way to more restrained social norms.
4. Evolution of Theatrical Tastes
Audiences began favoring sentimental comedy and domestic drama, which emphasized moral instruction and emotional appeal over wit and satire. Playwrights like Richard Steele and Colley Cibber developed a new style of comedy that combined humor with moral sentiment.
8. Legacy of the Restoration Comedy
Despite its decline, the Comedy of Manners left an enduring legacy:
1. Influence on Later Drama
– Oscar Wilde’s plays, particularly “The Importance of Being Earnest,” clearly show the influence of Restoration wit and social satire
– Noël Coward’s sophisticated comedies of the 20th century draw heavily from Restoration techniques
– Modern sitcoms and romantic comedies often employ similar devices of mistaken identity and social satire
2. Literary Techniques
The genre pioneered several dramatic techniques that became standard:
– Double entendre and verbal wit
– Complex plot structures involving multiple couples
– The use of aside and dramatic irony
– Sharp social commentary masked by humor
3. Character Types
Many character types first developed in Restoration comedy became archetypal:
– The rake hero (like Dorimant in “The Man of Mode”)
– The witty heroine (like Millamant in “The Way of the World”)
– The fop or dandy (like Sir Fopling Flutter)
– These character types continue to influence modern characterization
4. Social Commentary
The tradition of using comedy to critique society remains powerful:
– The exploration of gender roles and marriage
– The satire of social pretension and hypocrisy
– The contrast between appearance and reality
5. Theatrical Innovation
The period established important theatrical conventions:
– The use of female actors (replacing boy actors of the previous era)
– More naturalistic dialogue and situations
– Integration of contemporary social issues into entertainment
6. Cultural Impact
The Comedy of Manners influenced not just literature but broader cultural understanding:
– Contributing to the development of English wit and humor
– Establishing a tradition of social satire in British culture
– Influencing the portrayal of class and gender in literature
The genre’s sophistication in handling complex social interactions and its ability to combine entertainment with critique have ensured its continuing relevance. Modern adaptations of Restoration plays and their influence on contemporary comedy demonstrate the lasting impact of this theatrical tradition.
Even as theatrical tastes changed, the fundamental insights of Restoration comedy about human nature, social behavior, and the relationship between private desire and public reputation remain relevant. The genre’s techniques for exploring these themes continue to influence writers and entertainers today.
This legacy is particularly visible in contemporary works that combine social satire with romantic comedy, showing how the sophisticated handling of relationships and social criticism pioneered by Restoration playwrights remains a powerful model for modern entertainment.
9. Conclusion
The Restoration period and Comedy of Manners mark a distinctive achievement in English theatre, merging entertainment with incisive social commentary. The genre’s hallmarks – razor-sharp wit, sophisticated dialogue, and complex characterization – established a new theatrical tradition that continues to influence modern comedy.
The plays provide crucial historical documentation of post-Civil War England, particularly its changing social dynamics. They capture the period’s preoccupations: the tension between old and new aristocracy, evolving gender relations, and shifting attitudes toward marriage and sexuality. Playwrights like Congreve, Wycherley, Etherege, and Behn crafted works that both entertained their audiences and critiqued their society.
The psychological depth of Restoration comedy remains relevant. Its exploration of the gap between public persona and private desire, the complexity of human relationships, and the impact of social constraints on behavior still resonates. The character types developed – the rake, the wit, the hypocrite – became archetypes that continue to appear in modern entertainment.
The genre’s technical innovations transformed English theatre. It introduced more natural dialogue while maintaining theatrical wit, developed complex plot structures, and created a model for social satire that balances criticism with humor. These achievements influenced later writers from Oscar Wilde to Noël Coward and continue to shape contemporary comedy.
Restoration comedy’s enduring appeal lies in its combination of entertainment and insight. Through humor, it addresses universal themes: the conflict between individual desire and social expectation, the role of appearance and reality in social life, and the eternal human quest for love, status, and authenticity. This blend of artistic excellence, social commentary, and psychological insight ensures its continuing relevance for modern audiences.