Introduction
Set in 16th-century Italy, “The Duchess of Malfi” comments on early 1600s England. By choosing Italy as the backdrop, John Webster could safely criticize English society and politics, avoiding trouble with the authorities. At this time, corruption, scandals, and political plotting defined King James I’s court.
Building on this Italian backdrop, the story draws from real events. Webster borrowed the plot from William Painter’s book “The Palace of Pleasure” (1567), which recounted the true story of an Italian noblewoman, Giovanna d’Aragona, who secretly remarried against her brothers’ wishes.
This historical foundation situates the play during a fascinating period in English history. The country had recently changed from Catholic to Protestant (the Reformation), which created religious tension. Webster uses the Italian Catholic setting to explore themes of corruption, power, and hypocrisy that English audiences would recognize from their own society.
Why This Play Matters
This tragedy asks important questions that are still relevant today:
- Can a woman make her own choices about marriage and love?
- What happens when family members try to control each other?
- How does power corrupt people?
- Is it possible to maintain dignity and identity when everything is taken from you?
About the Author: John Webster
John Webster was born around 1580 in London. His father was a coach-maker (someone who built carriages), so Webster came from a working-class background. He became one of the most important playwrights of the Jacobean era (the period when King James I ruled England, 1603-1625).
Webster’s Life and Career
Webster started his career by working with other playwrights like Thomas Middleton and Thomas Dekker. This was common at the time—dramatists often collaborated on plays. He later wrote his own masterpieces, including “The White Devil” (1612) and “The Duchess of Malfi” (probably written between 1612-1614).
Life wasn’t easy for Webster. He faced financial difficulties, and the plague repeatedly closed London’s theaters, making it hard for playwrights to earn money. He also studied law, which gave him insight into legal corruption and court scandals—themes that appear throughout his work.
Webster’s Style
Webster is known for what critics call “the theatre of blood.” His plays show human cruelty, corruption, and violence in graphic detail. Unlike some writers who sugarcoat reality, Webster portrayed the dark side of human nature honestly. His worldview was pessimistic—he showed a world where good people suffer and evil often goes unpunished.
He died around 1634, leaving behind a small number of plays that continue to be performed and studied today.
Understanding the Title
“The Duchess of Malfi”
The title tells us three important things:
- The Duchess: This tells us the main character is a noblewoman with high social status. However, the play shows how even her rank cannot protect her from male tyranny.
- Malfi: This is the name of the Italian region she rules. Interestingly, “Malfi” sounds similar to “malefic,” which means evil or harmful. This wordplay hints at the evil forces that will destroy her.
- Duchess, not Duke: The title emphasizes that a woman is the ruler, which was unusual and controversial in Webster’s time.
What Kind of Play Is This?
“The Duchess of Malfi” is a revenge tragedy with these characteristics:
- Tragic Hero: The Duchess is noble and good, but her defiance leads to her death
- Revenge: Characters seek vengeance for real or imagined wrongs
- Violence: The play includes murder, torture, and psychological torment
- Moral Corruption: The setting is a corrupt court where evil seems to triumph
- Multiple Deaths: By the end, most major characters are dead
- Philosophical Questions: The play makes audiences think about justice, power, and morality
It combines elements from earlier Roman plays by Seneca (lots of violence and revenge) with the psychological depth of Shakespeare’s tragedies.
Plot Summary
The Complete Story
The play tells of a young Duchess who governs Malfi. Widowed, she wishes to remarry for love, but her brothers—the Cardinal and Duke Ferdinand—prohibit it. They want to control her fortune and keep it in the family.
The Duchess falls in love with Antonio Bologna, her steward. Even though he is beneath her in social class, she proposes to him in secret. They marry without her brothers’ knowledge and eventually have three children.
The brothers employ Bosola, a disgruntled, unemployed scholar, to spy on the Duchess. Bosola uncovers her secret when he detects her pregnancy. He deceives her by offering apricots (believed to induce labor) and finds proof when she accidentally drops her newborn son’s horoscope.
When the brothers discover the truth, they are enraged. Duke Ferdinand bursts into the Duchess’s chamber, threatening her with a knife. He fixates on her sexuality in a way that implies unhealthy, possibly incestuous feelings.
To protect Antonio and their children, the Duchess pretends to banish him for theft. Antonio flees with their oldest son. The Duchess and her other two children are captured by Bosola.
Ferdinand then inflicts psychological torment on the Duchess. In darkness, he presents what he claims is Antonio’s severed hand (actually a dead man’s). He displays wax figures resembling her dead husband and children (though they still live). He unleashes madmen from an asylum to harass her.
Through all this horror, the Duchess remains dignified. Her famous line, “I am Duchess of Malfi still,” shows her resilience. She is eventually strangled to death, along with her two young children and her maid, Cariola.
After the murders, guilt destroys the brothers. Ferdinand goes insane and believes he’s turning into a wolf. The Cardinal, trying to hide his crimes, poisons his mistress, Julia, when she discovers his secrets.
Bosola comes to respect the Duchess and decides to take revenge. In darkness and confusion, he accidentally kills Antonio, who has come seeking peace. Bosola then kills both the Cardinal and Ferdinand before dying himself.
The play ends with only Delio (Antonio’s loyal friend) and the Duchess’s oldest son surviving. Delio vows to restore the innocent boy to his rightful inheritance.
Act-by-Act Summary
Act I: Setting the Stage
The play opens at the palace in Malfi, where Antonio has just returned from France. He praises the Duchess, describing her as virtuous and good. Meanwhile, Bosola complains about court corruption and feels bitter, believing his intelligence goes unrecognized due to his low position.
Following Bosola’s complaint, the focus shifts to the Cardinal and Ferdinand, who warn their sister not to remarry. Though they claim concern for family honor, in truth, they want to keep control of her wealth rather than share it with a new husband or his children.
Nevertheless, despite her brothers’ warnings, the Duchess secretly marries Antonio in a private ceremony with only her maid Cariola as a witness. She initiates the proposal herself, an action shocking for the time—women weren’t supposed to be so forward.
What’s Important Here: This act establishes the main conflict between the Duchess’s desire for love and freedom versus her brothers’ need for control. It also shows us the contrast between the Duchess (honest, loving) and her brothers (hypocritical, controlling).
Act II: The Secret Revealed
Time passes, and the Duchess becomes pregnant with her first child. She attempts to conceal her condition, but Bosola becomes suspicious. He gives her apricots, and when she eats them quickly, he infers she is pregnant.
Soon after, the Duchess goes into labor. To hide what’s happening, Antonio creates chaos in the palace by accusing the servants of theft. Amid the confusion, the baby is born. However, Bosola finds the baby’s horoscope (a chart predicting the child’s future based on birth time), which proves the Duchess has given birth.
With this discovery, Bosola immediately sends word to Rome, where the brothers are staying with the Cardinal at his religious palace.
What’s Important Here: This act shows how difficult it is to keep secrets in a world of spies and suspicion. The mixture of comedy (the chaos during labor) and growing danger creates tension.
Act III: Confrontation and Flight
As more time passes and the Duchess has two more children, Ferdinand returns to Malfi. He confronts his sister in her bedroom at night, threatening her with a dagger. Condemning her for ‘tainting’ the family’s noble blood, he accuses her of marrying beneath her class.
In response, to protect Antonio and their oldest son, the Duchess publicly accuses Antonio of stealing from her and banishes him. This is actually a plan to get him safely away, as she intends to join him later by pretending to go on a religious pilgrimage.
Despite the Duchess’s intentions, Bosola sees through the plan and captures her before she can escape.
What’s Important Here: This act shows the Duchess’s cleverness and her willingness to sacrifice her own reputation to save her family. It also reveals Ferdinand’s frightening instability and the dangerous position the Duchess is in.
Act IV: Imprisonment and Death
This act represents the narrative’s darkest and most psychologically intense point. The Duchess’s imprisonment in her own palace signifies a reversal of her former autonomy, reducing her status to that of a captive. Ferdinand’s decision to visit her in darkness and present supposed evidence of Antonio’s death, as well as wax replicas of her family, can be interpreted as a calculated attempt to destabilize her sense of reality and exert control by manipulating her perceptions.
Following this psychological torment, Ferdinand sends madmen from an asylum to harass her. They sing strange songs and talk nonsense, symbolizing how mad and cruel the world has become.
Amid these horrors, the Duchess faces death with courage and dignity. When the executioners arrive to strangle her, she speaks her most famous lines, asserting her identity and refusing to be broken. After she dies, her children and Cariola also lose their lives.
Meanwhile, Bosola, who had carried out the murders on Ferdinand’s orders, is troubled by what he’s done. Ferdinand refuses to pay him and seems to go mad immediately after seeing his sister’s body.
What’s Important Here: This act shows the Duchess’s incredible strength of character. Even when everything is taken from her—her freedom, her family, her life—she maintains her sense of self. It’s also the emotional climax of the play.
Act V: Madness and Revenge
After the Duchess’s demise, the fabric of order unravels. Consumed by guilt, Ferdinand descends into utter madness, overtaken by lycanthropy. He prowls and howls like a wolf, convinced of his own transformation and attempting to assail all who cross his path.
Meanwhile, the Cardinal is having an affair with Julia (who was married to another man). Once she discovers his role in the murders, he forces her to kiss a poisoned book, killing her.
At the same time, Bosola, disgusted by the brothers’ actions and motivated by guilt over the Duchess’s death, decides to get revenge. During the confusion of the night, he accidentally stabs Antonio, who has secretly returned to Malfi, hoping to make peace. Realizing his mistake, Bosola is devastated.
In the final scene, as chaos continues to unfold, Bosola confronts both brothers in darkness. He kills the Cardinal and Ferdinand, though they also wound him. As everyone lies dying, Bosola expresses regret for the innocent lives lost.
As the play ends, Delio (Antonio’s friend) takes charge of the Duchess’s surviving son, promising to restore his rights and telling the audience to learn from this tragedy.
What’s Important Here: This act shows that evil destroys itself. The brothers’ cruelty doesn’t bring them power or happiness—it brings madness and death. However, there’s a small bit of hope: the innocent child survives.
Key Quotes from Each Act
- Act I: “Why might not I marry?” – The Duchess asserting her right to choose
- Act II: “Diamonds are of most value, they say, that have passed through most jewelers’ hands.” – Bosola’s cynical view
- Act III: “The birds that live in the field on the wild benefit of nature live happier lives than we.” – The Duchess on freedom
- Act IV: “I am Duchess of Malfi still.” – The Duchess’s famous declaration of identity
- Act V: “We are merely the stars’ tennis-balls, struck and banded which way please them.” – Bosola on fate
Characters:
Main Characters
The Duchess of Malfi
Who She Is: A young widow who rules the city of Malfi. She’s beautiful, intelligent, and kind. After her first husband’s death, she’s expected to remain a widow forever, but she wants to marry for love.
Personality Traits:
- Independent: She proposes to Antonio herself, breaking social rules that said women should be passive
- Brave: She faces torture and death without begging or breaking down
- Loving: She genuinely cares for Antonio and her children, not just for their status
- Dignified: Even as a prisoner, she maintains her identity and self-respect
- Witty: She has a good sense of humor and can joke even in difficult situations
What Motivates Her: Genuine love for Antonio and the desire to live freely. She doesn’t understand why being a widow should mean giving up happiness. She values love and personal choice over wealth and social rules.
Character Development: She starts as a confident ruler who believes she can control her own life. Through suffering, she becomes even stronger, transforming into almost a saint-like figure who represents resistance to tyranny. Her famous line “I am Duchess of Malfi still” shows that she never loses her sense of self, even when everything else is taken away.
Why She Matters: The Duchess represents anyone who dares to choose their own path despite powerful opposition. She’s a feminist hero—centuries before feminism existed as a movement—who asserts a woman’s right to make her own decisions.
Duke Ferdinand
Who He Is: The Duchess’s twin brother and the Duke of Calabria. He’s one of the main villains of the play.
Personality Traits:
- Controlling: He believes he has the right to control his sister’s body and choices
- Violent: He threatens, intimidates, and ultimately orders his sister’s murder
- Unstable: His emotions swing wildly from rage to guilt
- Obsessed: His fixation on his sister’s sexuality seems unhealthy and possibly incestuous
- Hypocritical: He judges his sister harshly while living an immoral life himself
What Motivates Him: On the surface, he claims to care about family honor and keeping wealth in the family. But deeper down, he seems to have disturbing, possessive feelings about his sister. He can’t stand the thought of her being with another man.
Character Development: Ferdinand starts as an angry, controlling brother. After the Duchess’s death, guilt destroys him. He develops lycanthropy (believing he’s turning into a wolf), which symbolizes how his inner beast has taken over. By the end, he’s completely mad, crawling on all fours and howling.
Why He Matters: Ferdinand represents toxic masculinity and the dangers of men who believe they own women. His madness shows that cruelty and control ultimately destroy the person who practices them.
The Cardinal
Who He Is: The Duchess’s other brother, a high-ranking church official who is supposed to be holy but is actually corrupt.
Personality Traits:
- Hypocritical: He preaches morality while having affairs and plotting murders
- Calculating: Unlike Ferdinand’s explosive anger, the Cardinal plans coldly
- Manipulative: He uses his religious position to hide his evil actions
- Cowardly: When faced with consequences, he tries to escape rather than face them
- Arrogant: He believes his position makes him untouchable
What Motivates Him: Greed and power. He wants to control the Duchess’s wealth and maintain his family’s status. He’s also worried that scandal might damage his position in the church.
Character Development: The Cardinal starts as a smooth, controlled villain. As his crimes catch up with him, he becomes paranoid and desperate. He poisons Julia to keep her quiet, showing how far he’ll go. By the end, his isolation (even his own servants won’t help him) reflects his spiritual emptiness.
Why He Matters: The Cardinal represents institutional corruption. He shows how people in positions of religious or moral authority can be the most corrupt of all.
Antonio Bologna
Who He Is: The Duchess’s steward (household manager) who becomes her secret husband. He’s from a lower social class than the Duchess.
Personality Traits:
- Honest: He manages the Duchess’s finances faithfully
- Humble: He knows he’s below the Duchess in rank and is surprised by her love
- Good: He represents virtue and genuine affection
- Cautious: He worries about the dangers of their secret marriage
- Devoted: He loves the Duchess and their children truly
What Motivates Him: Love for the Duchess and desire to protect their family. He didn’t pursue her—she pursued him—but he genuinely returns her feelings.
Character Development: Antonio starts as a loyal servant who admires his employer. After marrying her, he becomes more confident, though always aware of the danger. His death is tragic because he was trying to make peace, showing that good intentions don’t always lead to good outcomes.
Why He Matters: Antonio is the “good man” in the play. He proves that virtue exists in lower classes just as much as (or more than) in nobles. His relationship with the Duchess shows that true love crosses social boundaries.
Bosola
Who He Is: A former soldier and scholar who has fallen on hard times. Ferdinand hires him to spy on the Duchess.
Personality Traits:
- Cynical: He believes everyone is corrupt and the world is evil
- Intelligent: He’s well-educated and clever
- Bitter: He resents his low position and poverty
- Conflicted: He struggles between following orders and doing what’s right
- Changing: Unlike other characters, he actually grows and changes
What Motivates Him: Initially, money and advancement—he wants the rewards Ferdinand promises. Later, his conscience bothers him, especially after meeting the Duchess. By the end, he’s motivated by guilt and a desire for revenge against those who made him do evil.
Character Development: Bosola has the most complex character arc in the play. He starts as a villain—spying, discovering secrets, and eventually executing the Duchess. But the Duchess’s dignity affects him deeply. After her death, he transforms into an avenger who tries to make things right. His final act is killing the brothers who corrupted him.
Why He Matters: Bosola represents the person caught in the middle. He shows how poverty and lack of opportunity can push people to do wrong, but also how conscience can lead to redemption. He’s Webster’s most psychologically complex character.
Supporting Characters
Cariola
Who She Is: The Duchess’s maid and loyal friend.
Her Role: She witnesses the secret marriage and keeps the Duchess’s secrets. She represents loyalty and innocence. Unlike the Duchess, she begs for her life when she’s killed, which makes her more humanly relatable.
Delio
Who He Is: Antonio’s best friend and advisor.
His Role: He provides rational advice throughout the play and survives to take care of Antonio’s son. He represents reasonable, good people who observe but aren’t corrupted by the evil around them. His survival suggests hope for the future.
Julia
Who She Is: The Cardinal’s mistress (he’s not supposed to have one since he’s a church official).
Her Role: She shows the Cardinal’s hypocrisy and helps reveal his crimes. Her death by poison shows how dangerous it is to know too much in this world.
Old Lady, Pescara, Malateste, Roderigo
Their Roles: These minor characters represent the court society. Some provide comic relief with their gossip and foolishness. Others show that there are some decent people in the court, even if they can’t stop the tragedy.
Major Themes
1. Gender and Power
The Central Question: Can a woman control her own life, especially regarding love and marriage?
How the Play Explores It: In Webster’s time (and in the play’s 16th-century setting), widows were expected to remain unmarried. Women were seen as property—first of their fathers, then their husbands, and if widowed, their male relatives. The Duchess challenges this by:
- Proposing to Antonio (women weren’t supposed to initiate relationships)
- Marrying below her class (nobles were supposed to marry nobles)
- Having children outside her brothers’ control (her body was seen as family property)
Her brothers react with violence because her independence threatens their control. Ferdinand’s obsession with her sexuality shows how society policed women’s bodies. The Cardinal’s hypocrisy (he has affairs while condemning her marriage) reveals double standards.
Why It Matters Today: This theme connects to modern debates about women’s autonomy, bodily rights, and freedom from male control. The Duchess is a feminist heroine who pays the ultimate price for asserting her rights.
2. Class and Social Hierarchy
The Central Question: Does noble birth make someone better than others? Can love cross class boundaries?
How the Play Explores It: The tragedy happens largely because the Duchess marries “beneath” her station. Her brothers call Antonio “base” (low-born) and see the marriage as degrading their noble bloodline. Yet Webster shows us that:
- Antonio is honest, loyal, and good—more virtuous than the “noble” brothers
- The Cardinal and Ferdinand are cruel and corrupt despite their high rank
- True worth comes from character, not birth
The brothers’ obsession with “pure blood” and family honor is revealed as greed—they want to keep wealth and power, not protect actual honor.
Why It Matters Today: This theme connects to prejudices about class, race, and social status that still exist. It asks us to judge people by their character, not their background.
3. Corruption and Moral Decay
The Central Question: What happens to society when its leaders are corrupt?
How the Play Explores It: The play shows corruption at every level:
- Religious corruption: The Cardinal is supposed to represent God but has affairs, plots murder, and cares only about power
- Political corruption: Ferdinand abuses his authority as Duke to torment his sister
- Legal corruption: Bosola talks about how laws protect the powerful and trap the weak
- Personal corruption: Characters lie, spy, betray, and murder
The court of Malfi is like a poisoned fountain—corruption at the top spreads to everyone. Even Bosola, who starts with some principles, becomes a murderer.
Why It Matters Today: This theme warns about what happens when institutions become corrupt and those in power act immorally. It’s relevant to any discussion of political or religious scandals.
4. Identity and Human Dignity
The Central Question: What makes you “you”? Can anyone take away your essential self?
How the Play Explores It: The Duchess is stripped of everything:
- Her freedom (imprisoned)
- Her role as ruler (reduced to prisoner)
- Her family (husband and children taken or killed)
- Her life (murdered)
Yet her famous line, “I am Duchess of Malfi still,” asserts that her identity remains intact. No amount of torture or degradation can change who she fundamentally is. This is the play’s most powerful statement about human dignity.
Webster suggests that our identity comes from within—from our character and choices—not from external circumstances.
Why It Matters Today: This theme speaks to anyone who has been oppressed, imprisoned, or dehumanized. It affirms that dignity can’t be taken away, only surrendered.
5. Revenge and Justice
The Central Question: Is revenge the same as justice? Does seeking revenge make you as bad as your enemies?
How the Play Explores It: The play follows the revenge tragedy pattern, but Webster complicates it:
- The brothers take “revenge” on the Duchess for disobedience, but it’s really just cruelty
- Bosola seeks revenge on the brothers for corrupting him and making him kill the Duchess
- Everyone dies in the revenge cycle—there are no winners
Unlike simple revenge plays where revenge feels satisfying, here it just creates more death and suffering. The play suggests that in a world without justice, revenge is understandable but ultimately futile.
Why It Matters Today: This theme asks us to think about cycles of violence and whether revenge ever truly solves anything. It’s relevant to discussions of criminal justice, war, and conflict resolution.
6. Fate versus Free Will
The Central Question: Do we control our own destinies, or are we powerless against fate?
How the Play Explores It: Characters debate this throughout:
- Bosola’s famous line “We are merely the stars’ tennis-balls” suggests we’re just being knocked around by forces beyond our control
- The Duchess’s choice to marry Antonio seems like free will, but does it just trigger her inevitable doom?
- Horoscopes and predictions appear in the play, suggesting fate is real
Webster doesn’t give us a clear answer. The Duchess exercises free will and pays for it, but she also maintains dignity in death. This suggests that while we can’t control outcomes, we can control how we face them.
Why It Matters Today: This theme connects to debates about personal responsibility, determinism, and the limits of individual action in systems of power.
7. Appearance versus Reality
The Central Question: How much of what we see is real? How do people hide their true natures?
How the Play Explores It:
- The brothers appear honorable but are actually cruel
- The Cardinal appears holy but is corrupt
- The court appears civilized but is actually barbaric
- Ferdinand uses darkness and illusions (dead hand, wax figures) to manipulate perception
- Bosola pretends to be the Duchess’s friend while spying on her
Webster shows a world where you can’t trust what you see or who people claim to be.
Why It Matters Today: This theme asks us to look beneath surfaces and question authority figures who claim to be virtuous.
Important Symbols and Motifs
Blood
What It Represents: Blood appears throughout the play with multiple meanings:
- Family bloodline: The brothers obsess over keeping their “pure” noble blood from mixing with lower-class blood
- Violence: Literal blood from wounds and murders
- Guilt: Blood that can’t be washed away (like in Macbeth)
Key Examples: Ferdinand talks about blood constantly. After killing the Duchess, he becomes obsessed with blood and develops lycanthropy. His madness is like the blood-guilt manifesting physically.
Darkness and Shadows
What It Represents: Moral blindness, deception, and the hidden nature of evil.
Key Examples:
- Ferdinand visits the Duchess in complete darkness so she can’t see his face
- The final murders happen in darkness, with characters unable to see who they’re fighting
- The whole court operates in moral darkness—unable or unwilling to see the truth
The Dead Man’s Hand
What It Represents:
- Deception (it’s not really Antonio’s hand)
- Death’s touch reaching out
- The brothers’ attempt to break the Duchess’s spirit
Key Example: When Ferdinand gives the Duchess what he claims is Antonio’s severed hand in darkness, it’s his most psychologically cruel trick. It symbolizes how completely he’s trying to destroy her hope.
Madness
What It Represents:
- The breakdown of reason and order
- Guilt manifesting as mental illness
- The insanity of the corrupt court itself
Key Examples:
- The literal madmen brought to torment the Duchess represent how mad the world has become
- Ferdinand’s lycanthropy shows his inner beast taking over
- The play suggests that the “sane” courtiers are actually the mad ones
Poison
What It Represents:
- Hidden danger
- Corruption spreading invisibly
- Evil that seems harmless at first
Key Examples:
- Bosola uses apricots (which can be seen as a kind of poison triggering labor) to expose the Duchess’s pregnancy
- The Cardinal poisons Julia with a poisoned book
- Bosola describes the court as a poisoned fountain contaminating everything downstream
Religious Imagery
What It Represents:
- The corruption of supposedly holy institutions
- Hypocrisy of religious authorities
- Questions about divine justice
Key Examples:
- The Cardinal is the most evil character despite his religious position
- The Duchess goes on a fake pilgrimage (religious journey) to try to escape
- References to heaven and hell, but God seems absent from this cruel world
Echoes
What It Represents:
- Isolation and loneliness
- Words and actions coming back to haunt people
- The way truth eventually reveals itself
Key Example: In Act V, there’s a famous echo scene where Antonio hears his words repeated back to him. It creates an eerie, supernatural atmosphere and suggests that actions have consequences that reverberate.
Language and Style
Webster’s Writing Style
John Webster writes in a mixture of blank verse (unrhymed poetry with a rhythm) and prose (regular sentences). Here’s how he uses each:
Blank Verse (Poetry):
- Used by noble characters in serious moments
- Has a rhythm (usually 10 syllables per line with emphasis on every other syllable)
- Makes the language sound elevated and important
- Example: “I am Duchess of Malfi still” has a rhythmic quality
Prose (Regular Sentences):
- Used by lower-class characters or in casual conversations
- Also used for comic moments or very emotional scenes where characters are too upset for formal poetry
- Makes the language feel more natural and immediate
Important Literary Devices
Metaphor: Comparing two things without using “like” or “as”
- Example: Bosola compares human life to a “shadow” or “dream”—something insubstantial and brief
- The court is compared to a “fountain” that poisons everyone who drinks from it
Imagery: Vivid descriptions that appeal to our senses
- Webster uses lots of dark, violent imagery: blood, shadows, wolves, poisoned fruits
- This creates a mood of horror and decay
Irony: When the opposite of what you expect happens, or when words mean the opposite of what they seem to
- The Cardinal preaches morality but is immoral
- The Duchess is imprisoned in her own palace
- Ferdinand goes mad from killing his sister—he destroys himself
Dramatic Irony: When the audience knows something the characters don’t
- We know Bosola is a spy before the Duchess does
- We know Antonio isn’t really dead when the Duchess is shown the wax figures
Foreshadowing: Hints about what will happen later
- Early warnings about remarriage predict the tragedy
- The apricots foreshadow how the pregnancy will be discovered
- References to blood and death throughout hint at the violent ending
The Play’s Tone
The tone (the author’s attitude) shifts throughout:
- Acts I-II: Dark but with moments of hope and even humor
- Act III: Growing tension and fear
- Act IV: Horror and grief, but also admiration for the Duchess’s courage
- Act V: Chaos, madness, and ultimate despair with a tiny bit of hope at the end
Webster mixes tragedy with moments of grotesque humor (called “dark comedy”). This keeps audiences off-balance—you might laugh at Bosola’s cynical jokes, then be horrified by violent moments later.
Why Language Matters
Webster’s language is dense and complex, but that’s intentional. He wants to show:
- The complexity of human nature (we’re not simply good or evil)
- The contrast between beautiful words and ugly actions
- How language can hide truth or reveal it
Don’t worry if you don’t understand every line on first reading. Even Shakespeare scholars use notes! Focus on the main ideas and powerful moments.
Historical and Cultural Context
England in the Early 1600s
To understand the play, you need to know about the world Webster lived in:
Religion:
- England had recently become Protestant, breaking from the Catholic Church (the Reformation)
- Many English people were suspicious of Catholics and saw them as loyal to the Pope (in Rome) rather than to England
- Webster sets his play in Catholic Italy partly to criticize Catholicism safely
Politics:
- King James I ruled England (1603-1625)—this period is called “Jacobean”
- His court was known for scandal, favorites getting special treatment, and corruption
- Webster couldn’t directly criticize the King, so he set his critiques in “Italy”
Social Structure:
- Society was very hierarchical (divided by class)
- Nobles had enormous power over those below them
- Women had very few rights—they couldn’t own property, and marriages were arranged
- Widows had slightly more freedom, which is why the Duchess’s brothers are so focused on controlling her
Theater:
- Plays were extremely popular entertainment
- The play was performed at Blackfriars Theatre, an indoor theater for wealthier audiences
- The plague frequently closed theaters (killing thousands)
- Actors were all male—boys played female roles like the Duchess
Why Italy?
Webster deliberately set the play in Italy for several reasons:
- Safety: He could criticize corruption without being accused of attacking England directly
- Exoticism: Italy seemed foreign, mysterious, and dangerous to English audiences
- Catholic Setting: Italy was the center of Catholicism, and English Protestants associated Catholicism with corruption and excess
- Revenge Tradition: Italian revenge stories were popular—audiences expected violence and intrigue in Italian settings
Real Historical Basis
The story is loosely based on real events:
- Giovanna d’Aragona was a real Italian noblewoman who lived in the early 1500s
- She really did remarry secretly against her brothers’ wishes
- Her brothers really did have her killed
- Webster learned about this from William Painter’s book of Italian tales
However, Webster changed and exaggerated the story for dramatic effect.
Contemporary Relevance
When the play was first performed (around 1613-1614), audiences would have recognized:
Court corruption (similar to James I’s court)
Scandals about secret marriages and murders among nobles
Debates about women ‘s rights and roles
Religious hypocrisy (Protestant audiences loved seeing corrupt Catholic clergy)
How to Analyze Key Scenes
Scene Analysis: The Secret Marriage (Act I, Scene 2)
What Happens: The Duchess proposes to Antonio in private, with only her maid Cariola as witness. She gives Antonio a ring, and they exchange vows.
Why It’s Important:
This is revolutionary for the time—women didn’t propose to men
It shows the Duchess’s courage and independence
The secrecy foreshadows the tragedy to come
It establishes the central conflict of the play
What to Notice:
The Duchess’s direct, honest language contrasts with her brothers’ deceptive speech
Antonio is hesitant because he knows the danger, but she insists
The intimate, private setting emphasizes how love must hide from the corrupt public world
Cariola’s presence as a witness makes it a legal marriage
Questions to Consider:
Is the Duchess being brave or reckless?
Does her choice to marry Antonio justify what happens to her?
How would this scene have shocked original audiences?
Scene Analysis: The Dead Man’s Hand (Act IV, Scene 1)
What happens: Ferdinand visits the imprisoned Duchess in complete darkness. He gives her what he claims is Antonio’s severed hand and shows her wax figures that look like her dead family.
Why It’s Important:
This is psychological torture at its worst
It shows Ferdinand’s cruelty and mental instability
The Duchess’s reaction reveals her strength of character
The darkness symbolizes moral blindness and deception
What to Notice:
Ferdinand uses darkness so his sister can’t see his face—he’s ashamed but still cruel
The dead hand isn’t real (neither are the wax figures), showing how he manipulates reality
The Duchess briefly breaks down but recovers, showing human vulnerability and strength
This scene would have been terrifying for audiences watching by candlelight
Questions to Consider:
Why does Ferdinand torture his sister this way instead of just killing her?
What does his use of darkness and illusions tell us about his character?
How does this scene show the power of psychological versus physical violence?
Scene Analysis: “I Am Duchess of Malfi Still” (Act IV, Scene 2)
What happens: The Duchess faces her executioners. She speaks her most famous line, asserting her identity even as everything is being taken from her. She is then strangled to death.
Why It’s Important:
This is the emotional and thematic climax of the play
The Duchess’s dignity in death makes her a tragic hero
Her words assert that identity comes from within, not from circumstances
This scene has inspired readers and audiences for over 400 years
What to Notice:
She doesn’t beg for mercy or deny who she is
She kneels willingly, showing she’s not afraid
Her calmness contrasts with Cariola’s panic (making the Duchess seem almost superhuman)
Even Bosola is moved by her courage
Questions to Consider:
What does “I am Duchess of Malfi still” really mean?
Is her death a defeat or a victory?
How does this scene make you feel about the Duchess?
What would you do in her situation?
Scene Analysis: Bosola’s Revenge (Act V, Scene 4)
What happens: In a dark room, Bosola confronts and kills both the Cardinal and Ferdinand. He is also mortally wounded. Multiple bodies lie on stage as Bosola dies, expressing regret.
Why It’s Important:
This is the final bloodbath that resolves the revenge plot
Evil destroys itself; the villains all die
Bosola’s transformation from villain to avenger completes his character arc
The darkness and confusion symbolize the moral chaos of the world
What to Notice:
The scene happens in darkness, like Ferdinand’s earlier tortures—now turned against him
Characters mistake each other’s identities, showing how confusion and evil blur everything
Bosola kills the brothers but takes no satisfaction from it
His dying words are about the innocent child who survives
Questions to Consider:
Is this justice or just more violence?
Does Bosola redeem himself by killing the brothers?
Why does Webster end with so much death?
What does the survival of the child mean?
Performance and Staging
How the Play Works on Stage
Challenges for Directors and Actors:
Violence: The play includes strangulation, stabbing, and torture. Modern productions must decide how graphic to make it.
Tone: Balancing tragedy with dark humor is difficult. Too serious and it’s depressing; too funny and it’s disrespectful.
The Duchess: The actress must show strength, vulnerability, love, fear, and courage—a huge range.
Madness: How do you show Ferdinand’s lycanthropy? Too realistic looks silly; too subtle loses impact.
Darkness: Many key scenes happen in darkness. How do you stage this when audiences need to see?
Famous Productions
Historical Performances:
Originally performed around 1613-1614 at Blackfriars Theatre
Revived occasionally through the 1600s but then largely forgotten
Rediscovered in the 1800s and 1900s
Modern Productions:
Royal Shakespeare Company versions have been particularly influential
2003 Production: Featured Janet McTeer as the Duchess—emphasized feminist themes
2010 Production: Focused on political corruption, making connections to modern politics
2018 Production: Gender-bent casting with some male characters played by women
Different Interpretations:
Some directors emphasize the horror and violence (Gothic approach)
Others focus on political critique (treating it like a thriller)
Feminist productions highlight the Duchess’s oppression and resistance
Some modernize the setting (suits instead of Renaissance costumes) to show timeless themes
Film and Television Adaptations
BBC Television Film (1972):
Faithful to Webster’s text
Dark, atmospheric filming
Emphasized the psychological horror
Modern Adaptations:
Several loose adaptations have updated the setting
The basic story—woman defies powerful brothers, suffers consequences—appears in many forms
Critical Perspectives (What Scholars Say)
Feminist Readings
The Argument: Feminist critics see the Duchess as a proto-feminist hero fighting patriarchal control.
Key Points:
She asserts rights over her own body and choices
Her brothers punish her for her female sexuality and independence
The play critiques how women were treated as property
Her famous line, “I am Duchess of Malfi still,” is a feminist battle cry
Important Scholar: Kathleen McCluskie argues that the play both shows and critiques misogyny.
Questions This Raises:
Is the Duchess’s death a feminist statement or an anti-feminist warning?
Does the play critique patriarchy or just show it?
What would a truly feminist ending look like?
Marxist/Class-Based Readings
The Argument: Marxist critics focus on how class conflict drives the tragedy.
Key Points:
The brothers fear losing wealth and status
Antonio represents the rising middle class
The Duchess’s marriage threatens aristocratic privilege
Lower-class characters (Bosola) are trapped by economic necessity
Important Scholar: Jonathan Dollimore sees the play as exposing how the powerful exploit the powerless.
Questions This Raises:
Is the tragedy really about class rather than gender?
Could the Duchess and Antonio have succeeded if they were of equal rank?
What does Bosola’s character tell us about class mobility?
Psychoanalytic Readings
The Argument: Psychoanalytic critics examine the characters’ unconscious motivations and desires.
Key Points:
Ferdinand’s obsession with his sister suggests incestuous desire
His lycanthropy represents his repressed animalistic urges
The Duchess’s secret marriage can be read as rebellion against father figures
Family relationships are twisted and unhealthy
Important Scholar: Stephen Orgel explores Ferdinand’s sexual jealousy as central to his cruelty.
Questions This Raises:
Is Ferdinand in love with his sister?
How do family bonds become toxic?
What do the brothers’ obsessions tell us about masculinity?
New Historicist Readings
The Argument: New Historicist critics examine how the play reflects its historical moment.
Key Points:
The play mirrors scandals in James I’s court
It reflects anxieties about Catholic corruption
Social changes (like more independence for widows) created tensions
The play both reflects and shapes cultural attitudes
Important Scholar: Frank Whigham connects the play to actual marriage controversies in Jacobean England.
Questions This Raises:
How much is the play about its own time versus universal themes?
What can we learn about Jacobean England from this play?
How do historical contexts change how we read the play?
Study Questions and Essay Topics
Understanding the Plot
Why do the Cardinal and Ferdinand forbid the Duchess to remarry?
How does Bosola discover the Duchess’s secret?
What methods does Ferdinand use to torture his sister?
How does Antonio die?
What happens to Ferdinand after the Duchess’s death?
Who survives at the end of the play and why?
Character Analysis
Is the Duchess a tragic hero? Why or why not?
How does Bosola change throughout the play?
Compare and contrast Ferdinand and the Cardinal as villains.
What role does Antonio play beyond being the Duchess’s husband?
Why does Cariola react so differently to death than the Duchess does?
Themes and Ideas
How does the play explore the theme of appearance versus reality?
What does the play suggest about the relationship between power and corruption?
Is this a play about fate or free will? Explain your answer.
How does Webster present the theme of madness?
What does the play say about the position of women in society?
Language and Style
Find three examples of imagery and explain what they contribute to the play.
How does Webster use light and darkness symbolically?
Analyze the significance of the line “I am Duchess of Malfi still.”
How does Webster create suspense and tension?
What role does irony play in the play?
Historical and Cultural Context
How does the play reflect attitudes toward Catholicism in Protestant England?
What does the play reveal about class structure in the Renaissance?
How would the play have been different if Webster could have set it in England?
What aspects of the play seem most dated? Most timeless?
Essay Topics
Compare and Contrast:
Compare the Duchess to a Shakespearean tragic hero (like Hamlet or Othello)
Compare Ferdinand’s madness to the Cardinal’s calculated evil
Compare Antonio and Bosola as contrasting male characters
Analytical Essays:
Analyze how Webster uses darkness and light throughout the play
Examine the role of women in The Duchess of Malfi
Discuss whether revenge brings satisfaction or just more suffering in the play
Analyze how the play critiques institutional corruption
Examine the significance of the play’s ending
Argumentative Essays:
Argue whether the Duchess is responsible for her own tragedy
Is Bosola a villain, a victim, or a hero? Defend your position.
Does the play have a moral message, or is it just showing violence?
Argue whether the play is ultimately pessimistic or hopeful
Should we sympathize with Ferdinand at all? Why or why not?
Tips for Reading and Understanding the Play
Before You Start Reading
Read a plot summary first: Knowing the basic story helps you follow the language better
Remember, it’s a play: It’s meant to be performed, not just read silently
Don’t expect to understand everything: Even experts use notes and annotations
Know that it’s violent: Be prepared for graphic content
While You’re Reading
Read scenes aloud: Hearing the words helps with understanding
Use notes and summaries: No shame in using study guides!
Keep track of characters: Make a list with brief descriptions
Notice patterns: Look for repeated words, images, or ideas
Mark confusing parts: Come back to them later or ask about them
Pay attention to stage directions: They tell you important information
Look for key quotes: Lines that seem important or powerful
After You Read a Scene or Act
Summarize what happened: Write a brief summary in your own words
Note questions: What confused you? What surprised you?
Think about themes: What big ideas is this scene exploring?
Consider character development: How have characters changed?
Make predictions: What do you think will happen next?
Understanding Difficult Language
Strategies:
Look up words you don’t know (but don’t stop for every single one)
Try to get the general meaning even if you don’t understand every word
Look for modern translations or “No Fear” versions to compare
Watch a filmed performance to see how actors interpret the lines
Common Confusions:
“Thou/Thee/Thy”: Old-fashioned “you”
Inverted word order: “Know you not?” instead of “Don’t you know?”
Old words: Many words have changed meaning or aren’t used anymore
References: Classical and biblical references that modern readers might not recognize
Getting More from the Play
Watch a performance: Seeing it staged brings it to life
Read critics: See what scholars have said about it
Discuss with others: Talking about the play reveals new insights
Think about modern connections: How does it relate to today’s world?
Consider different perspectives: How might different people read this play?
Why This Play Still Matters
Universal Themes
Despite being over 400 years old, the play explores issues that remain relevant:
Power and Corruption:
We still see leaders abuse power
Institutions (religious, political, corporate) still hide corruption
The play warns us to question authority
Gender and Control:
Women still fight for bodily autonomy and freedom of choice
Controlling behavior in relationships is still a problem
The Duchess’s story resonates with modern feminist movements
Class and Prejudice:
Society still judges people based on background
Economic inequality still shapes opportunities
The play questions whether birth determines worth
Identity and Dignity:
People still struggle to maintain identity under oppression
The Duchess’s resistance inspires anyone facing adversity
Her famous line speaks to maintaining self-worth in hardship
Modern Relevance
The play connects to contemporary issues:
#MeToo Movement:
The Duchess faces punishment for her sexuality
Her brothers try to control her body
The play shows how women are punished for independence
Political Corruption:
Like today’s politicians, the Cardinal and Ferdinand abuse power
The play shows how corruption at the top spreads downward
It reminds us to hold leaders accountable
Mental Health:
Ferdinand’s madness shows how guilt and violence destroy mental health
The play doesn’t mock madness but shows it as a consequence of evil
It treats psychological torture as seriously as physical violence
Class Inequality:
Debates about wealth, privilege, and opportunity continue
The play questions whether anyone should have power over others
It shows how economic desperation leads people to compromise ethics
What the Play Teaches Us
Dignity cannot be taken, only surrendered: The Duchess shows that inner strength persists despite circumstances
Evil destroys itself: The brothers’ cruelty doesn’t bring happiness—it brings madness and death
Corruption spreads: When leaders are corrupt, everyone suffers
Courage matters: Standing up for your beliefs has value, even if you don’t “win”
Identity is internal: Who you are isn’t determined by your title, possessions, or circumstances
Revenge creates cycles of violence: Killing those who wronged you doesn’t bring peace
Hope can survive tragedy: The innocent child’s survival suggests renewal is possible
Conclusion: Why Study This Play?
For Understanding Literature:
It’s a masterpiece of Jacobean drama
It shows how tragedy works as a genre
It demonstrates powerful use of language and symbolism
It influences later writers and continues to be performed
For Understanding History:
It reveals attitudes and anxieties of the early 1600s
It shows us how people thought about gender, class, power, and religion
It reflects real political and social tensions
It demonstrates how art responds to historical moments
For Understanding Ourselves:
It explores timeless human experiences: love, jealousy, courage, cruelty
It asks questions that every generation must answer
It challenges us to think about power, justice, and dignity
It shows both the worst and best of human nature
Personal Growth:
Studying tragedy helps us understand suffering and resilience
The Duchess models dignity under pressure
The play warns against abuse of power
It encourages us to question authority and fight for autonomy
Final Thoughts
The Duchess of Malfi is challenging, it’s violent, complex, and sometimes disturbing. But it’s also powerful, moving, and surprisingly relevant. The Duchess’s courage in the face of overwhelming evil has inspired readers and audiences for over 400 years.
As you study this play, don’t just focus on memorizing plot points or quotes. Think about what Webster is saying about power, gender, identity, and courage. Consider how the play makes you feel and why. Ask yourself what the Duchess’s story means for your own life and world.
Most importantly, remember that great literature isn’t just about the past—it speaks to every era, including ours. The questions Webster asks are still questions we’re trying to answer. The injustices he portrays still exist in different forms. And the courage his heroine shows is still the kind of courage we need today.
Remember: This study guide is here to help you understand and appreciate the play. Use it alongside your reading, not instead of it. The more you engage with Webster’s actual words, the more you’ll discover in this rich, complex, and ultimately rewarding tragedy.