Introduction:
In the early years of Elizabethan dramatist Ben Jonson, his personal life was more complex than that of Shakespeare. Jonson was a public figure, known for his dramatic commentary on literature and philosophy, highly personalized poems, and heavy involvement in royal entertainments of King James I and Charles I. He was more honored than Shakespeare and served as an advisor to young poets until his death in 1637.
Jonson’s birth date is unknown, but it is believed to be June 11, 1572, a month after his biological father’s death. His family was not extremely poor, as his stepfather, Robert Brett, was a moderately prosperous bricklayer. Jonson attended Westminster school, one of the elite schools of Elizabethan England, where Elizabeth herself attended the school’s Christmas play regularly. Attending the school greatly widened Jonson’s social and intellectual horizons, as it was the place where England’s future ruling classes were trained.
At the age of sixteen, Jonson was forced to leave the school and tried his hand at soldiering before becoming apprenticed to a bricklayer in London. The apprenticeship was terminated when Jonson decided to marry Anne Lewis, which may have been related to another decision Jonson made in the mid-1590s, which was to devote his life to the theater. Jonson became known as an hilariously bad actor and a violent ruffian who once killed a fellow actor without provocation. It was only when he tried his hand at writing plays instead of performing in them that he began to have success.
The profession of playwriting didn’t exist at the time of Jonson’s birth, but it was a product of a change in the activity of acting companies. As the theatre grew into an ever-growing industry, there was a great demand for new plays, and playwriting became a profession. Jonson, with a string of popular plays such as Every Man in His Humour (and some unpopular ones, such as Every Man out of His Humour), gradually made a name for himself, establishing a reputation as a witty, intellectual playwright.
Despite his conversion to Catholicism during his first time in jail, Jonson was arrested for co-writing a play titled Eastward Ho in 1605, which the censors interpreted as a derogatory statement on the newly crowned King James. That year, he separated from his wife. Volpone, written in the early months of 1606, was one of Jonson’s biggest hits and firmly established him as an important literary figure.
Many scholars have attempted to interpret the writing of Volpone as a psychological way of resolving a fundamental conflict within Jonson. This conflict was between Jonson’s violent past and his conservative view of life and art, which was grounded in his classical education at Westminster. Jonson idealized the countryside in poems like To Penshurst and saw much of city life around him as grasping, brutish, and nasty. However, his rough character traits were inappopriate for the voice of classical moderation and reason.
While the personal and situational information about Jonson’s life provides valuable insights into his character, it is important to recognize the complex relationship between his violent past and his conservative views on life and art.
Plot Overview
Volpone is a play set in seventeenth-century Venice, where Volpone, a Venetian nobleman, is attracting the attention of three legacy hunters: Voltore, an old lawyer, Corbaccio, and Corvino, who are interested in inheriting his estate after his death. Volpone is known to be rich, childless, and very ill, so each of the hunters lavishes gifts on him, hoping that Volpone will make him his heir. However, Volpone is actually in excellent health and merely faking illness for the purpose of collecting these impressive “get-well” gifts.
In the first act, each legacy hunter arrives to present a gift to Volpone, except for Corbaccio, who offers only a worthless (and probably poisoned) vial of medicine. However, Corbaccio agrees to return later in the day to make Volpone his heir, so that Volpone will return the favor. This act is a boon to Volpone, since Corbaccio likely will die long before Volpone does. After each hunter leaves, Volpone and Mosca laugh at each other’s gullibility.
After Corvino’s departure, Lady Politic Would-be, the wife of an English knight living in Venice, arrives at the house but is told to come back three hours later. Volpone decides to try to get a close look at Corvino’s wife, Celia, who Mosca describes as one of the most beautiful women in all of Italy. She is kept under lock and key by her husband, who has ten guards on her at all times. Volpone vows to use disguise to get around these barriers.
The second act portrays a time just a short while later that day, when we meet Sir Politic Would-be, Lady Politic’s husband, who is conversing with Peregrine, an English traveler who has just landed in Venice. Sir Politic takes a liking to the young boy and vows to teach him a thing or two about Venice and Venetians. The two are walking in the public square in front of Corvino’s house when they are interrupted by the arrival of “Scoto Mantua,” actually Volpone in diguise as an Italian mountebank, or medicine-show man. Scoto engages in a long and colorful speech, hawking his new “oil”, which is touted as a cure-all for disease and suffering. At the end of the speech, he asks the crows to toss him their handkerchiefs, and Celia complies.
Corvino berates his wife for tossing her handkerchief, as he interprets it as a sign of her unfaithfulness. As punishment, she is no longer allowed to go to Church, cannot stand near windows, and must do everything backwards from now on. Mosca then implying to Corvino that if he lets Celia sleep with Volpone, then Volpone will choose him as his heir. Suddenly, Corvino’s jealousy disappears, and he consents to the offer.
In the early afternoon, Peregrine and Sir Politic discuss various schemes for making money in Venice. Lady Politic is convinced that Peregrine is the prostitute Mosca told her about, but Mosca tells her she is mistaken. Lady Politic ends by giving Peregrine a seductive goodbye with a coy suggestion that they see each other again. Peregrine is incensed at her behavior and vows revenge on Sir Politic.
The scene switches to the Scrutineo, the Venetian Senate building, where Celia and Bonario have informed the judges of Venice about Volpone’s deceit, Volpone’s attempt to rape Celia, Corbaccio’s disinheritance of his son, and Corvino’s decision to prostitute his wife. The defendants, led by their lawyer, Voltore, make a good case for themselves, leading to the arrest and separation of Celia and Bonario.
Volpone returns home tired and worried about growing ill, so he decides to engage in one final prank on the legacy hunters. He spreads a rumor that he has died and tells Mosca to pretend that he has been made his master’s heir. The plan goes off perfectly, and all three legacy hunters are fooled. Volpone disguises himself as a Venetian guard to gloat in each legacy hunter’s face over their humiliation without being recognized.
Mosca tells the audience that Volpone is dead in the eyes of the world and will not let him “return to the world of the living” unless Volpone pays up, giving Mosca a share of his wealth. Peregrine presents himself as a merchant to the knight and informs Politic that word has gotten out of his plan to sell Venice to the Turks.
Volpone gloats in front of each legacy hunter, deriding them for having lost Volpone’s inheritance to a parasite like Mosca, and successfully avoids recognition. Voltore, driven to such a state of distraction by Volpone’s teasing, decides to recant his testimony in front of the Senate, implicating both himself and Mosca as a criminal. Corvino accuses him of being a sore loser, upset that Mosca has inherited Volpone’s estate upon his death.
Volpone nearly recovers from his blunder by telling Voltore that “Volpone” is still alive. Mosca denies this, realizing that he has been betrayed. Volpone decides to turn both Mosca and Celia in, leading to Volpone being sent to prison, Mosca being consigned to a slave galley, and Corvino publicly humiliated. At the end, a small note from the playwright asks the audience to applaud if they enjoyed the play they just saw.
Analysis of Major Characters
Volpone
The play’s title character is its protagonist, though an inconsistent one He departs in Act IV, ostensibly replaced by Mosca, and is first an instrument and later a victim of Jonson’s critique of money-obsessed society. He is an instrument of evil because it is via his ingenuity and intelligence that Voltore, Corbaccio, and Corvino are misled and he seems to partake in Jonson’s satiric interpretation of the events, commenting in I.v “What a rare punishment / Is avarice to itself.” But the satire eventually turns back on him when he becomes a victim of Mosca’s “Fox-trap.” The reason he is entrapped by Mosca is that he cannot resist one more gloat at his dupes, blind to the fact that in doing so, he hands up his entire estate to Mosca. This lack of cognitive preparation and adherence to his own sensuous instincts is characteristic of Volpone. He adores entertaining, banquets, feasts, and lovemaking. He dislikes having to make money through honest labour or cold, cruel banking, but he enjoys making it in clever, dishonest methods, especially as a means toward food and lovemaking. He is a creature of desire, an inventive hedonist continuously trying to find and obtain new forms of pleasure, whatever the consequences may be. This dynamic in his character determines our reaction to him throughout the play. At times, this hedonism looks enjoyable, engaging, interesting, and even ethically valuable, such as when he is engaged in the deception of his fortune hunters. But his attempted seduction of Celia uncovers a darker side to his hedonism as it becomes an attempted rape. The occurrence makes him, in the moral cosmos of the play, a fair target for mockery, which is what he becomes in Act V, when, because of his lack of restraint, he ends up on his way to prison, the most unpleasurable condition possible.
Mosca
In a drama that revolves around disguises, Mosca is the ultimate master of disguise. He is the person who consistently executes Volpone’s plans and the one who comes up with the essential falsehood whenever needed. The falsehood could be told in order to shield Volpone from the charges filed against him by Bonario and Celia or to convince Corvino to let his wife sleep with the Fox—either way Mosca seems to have no scruples about deceit. But his most crucial deceit is the one he effects on Volpone and the audience, hiding his actual nature and goals from both the Fox and us. In the initial acts, Mosca looks to be precisely what he is portrayed as: a clinging, submissive parasite, who only exists for Volpone and through Volpone. In essence, he exists to serve Volpone, desiring anything that Volpone desires. This idea is reinforced by multiple cringing speeches that he gives, all in support of Volpone. But in Act Three, we see the beginning of what looks an assertion of self-identity by Mosca, when he begins to grow confidence in his abilities. But then this confidence again is left unvoiced, and Mosca seems to go back to being Volpone’s faithful servant, helping him get out of the uncomfortable position with Bonario and Celia. But it turns out that Mosca’s aid in this scenario may have been driven as much by personal interest as it was by a desire to aid Volpone, for when he is offered with an opportunity to acquire Volpone’s fortune, he takes it. Mosca himself is consumed by greed, and he attempts to move out of his status as parasite—a harmless fly, circling about a large beast—to the role of enormous beast himself. But his ploy fails, as Volpone exposes them both. An interesting question is what meaning his failure has in the context of the play and whether it is just punishment for his avarice, his dishonesty, or his desire to seize the powers and privileges of the nobility and ascend beyond his social status.
Celia
While Volpone says “yes” to every single pleasure he can find—and pursues those pleasures vigorously—Celia is distinguished by her self-denial. This makes her an ideal counterpoint for Volpone, since her self-restraint reveals his complete lack thereof, no more obviously than in Volpone’s attempted seduction of her. The turning point of the play comes when she replies “no” to Volpone’s overtures, thus denying him the carnal delights he depicts in his seduction speech. Celia is willing to do everything to escape dishonor, and this renders her character bland and predictable, too ready to sacrifice herself to be convincing. Her willingness to subject herself to Corvino’s harsh commands and abuse may make her seem more weak than strong. But she has an inner moral sense, (even if it is governed by seventeenth-century traditions on womanhood) demonstrated by the fact that she refuses Volpone against her husband’s clear wishes. The fact that Jonson stands with her can be evident in his decision to put one of the clearest declarations of the play’s thesis in her mouth: “Whither, whither / Is shame fled human breasts? Is that, which ever been a cause for life , /Now thrown beneath the basest circumstance? / And modesty an exile made, for money?” Jonson again picks a name with symbolic meaning for Celia: it stems from the Latin word caelum, meaning “sky” or “heaven”.
Voltore
Voltore is, like all the heritage hunters, named after a carrion-bird. In the instance of Voltore, that bird is the vulture; for Corvino, it is the crow, and for Corbaccio, the raven. Voltore is the most pleasant of all the legacy seekers, for he is the least crass and the least preoccupied with seeing Volpone die. His preferred status evident in Mosca’s special admiration for him: Mosca strives to make sure that Voltore gets enough remuneration for his services during the Scrutineo in Act IV. But Voltore grows to regret his conduct at the Scrutineo. Of course, this regret only comes after he has been denied his inheritance, and it seems to flow directly from his fury at Mosca’s leapfrogging over him on the social ladder. And when Volpone whispers to him that he might still win his fortune, he stops revealing his lies to the Scrutineo and says that he was “possessed” by an evil demon. The lexical irony is that Voltore, in his phrase and action, displays his greed.
Themes
Greed
Volpone’s satire is geared against “avarice,” which can be understood of as greed that extends not just to money but also to all things of human desire. The central idea of the play is articulated by Volpone: “What a rare punishment / Is avarice to itself.” The punishment—and the major irony of the play—is that while greed drives the pursuit for money, power, and respect, it ends up making everyone in the play look dumb, despicable, and impoverished, both spiritually and financially. A same thought is articulated by both Celia, when she asks in III.vii, “Whither [where] is shame fled human breasts?” and by the judge at the end of the play in his plea that the audience should “learn” from the play what happens to people who succumb to greed, underscoring that the play’s perspective on greed is a didactic one, meant to teach the audience what greed’s genuine repercussions are. Volpone initially serves as a vehicle for this lesson—deceiving Corvino, Corbaccio, and Voltore into relinquishing their possessions in anticipation of inheriting his wealth—but ultimately becomes a subject of the lesson himself, as he yields to his insatiable desire for sexual gratification.
The Power of Stagecraft
There is a duality in the play, never totally resolved, between the tactics of stagecraft and the delivery of moral truth. In other words, there is a tension between the play itself (a play which, Jonson hopes, will be of moral value to those who see it) and what goes on in the play, in which the devices of stagecraft that are involved in the play’s actual production are a source of deceit, confusion, and moral corruption. In other words, Volpone does not only lie, yet he does not merely deceive; he builds a whole performance out of his game, utilizing a specific eye ointment to simulate an eye illness, constructing a character (the sick Volpone) using wardrobe, make-up, and props. He also appears to possess the goal of revealing moral stupidity, akin to the dramatist Jonson; yet, this ultimately proves to be yet another delusion. Likewise, Mosca and Voltore put on a spectacle to convince the judges of their innocence. They combine rhetoric and poetry to create a story, replete with a surprising “surprise witness” and the graphic use of imagery (the apparition of “impotent” Volpone). The play thus exposes us to many various forms of theatrical illusion as means of lying, maybe in the intention of teaching us to better recognize which forms of theater are sensationalistic, useless, and inaccurate in their portrayal of reality.
Parasitism
“Everyone’s a parasite” to paraphrase Mosca (III.i), and during the course of the play he is proved true, in the sense that everyone tries to live off of the money or livelihood of others, without doing any “honest toil” of their own. Corvino, Corbaccio and Voltore all strive to inherit a wealth from a dying man; and Volpone himself has gained his fortune on cons similar as the one he is performing today. Parasitism, so portrayed, is not a symptom of idleness or despair, but a form of supremacy. The parasite survives via cunning, exploiting others by adeptly manipulating their gullibility and benevolence.
Motifs
The Sacred and the Profane
Volpone, both in his introductory speech in Act I and in his seduction speech of Act III, blends religious language and profane subject matter to a striking lyrical effect. In Act I, the focus of his reverence is money; in Act III, it is Celia, or possibly her physical form, that elicits prayer-like expressions. As a contrast against this, Celia calls for a distinction to be restored between the “base” and the “noble,” (in other words, between the profane—that which is firmly entrenched in our animal natures, and the sacred—that which is divine about us. Through their contrasting destinies, the play seems to endorse Celia’s perspective, however Jonson sprinkles Volpone’s utterances with a great lot of poetic fire and rhetorical adornment that make his position alluring and rich, which is again, another source of tension in the play.
Disguise, Deception and Truth
Jonson establishes an intricate interplay between disguise, deception, and truth in the drama. Disguise sometimes helps simply to conceal, as it does when Peregrine dupes Sir Politic Would-be. But occasionally it discloses inner realities that a person’s typical attire may conceal. Volpone, for example, publicly shows more of his “true self” (his vigorous, healthy self) when he dresses as Scoto Mantua; and Scoto’s words seem to be replete with authorial criticism from Jonson himself. Furthermore, disguise is believed to have a certain force and strength all of its own; by wearing one, people incur the risk of changing their identity, of being unable to escape the disguise. This is particularly the case for Mosca and Volpone in Act V, whose “disguised” identities almost overshadow their true ones.
Gulling
Gulling implies “making someone into a fool.” The question that the play encourages us to ask is who is being made a fool by whom?. Volpone acts sick to make the legacy-hunters fools, but Mosca plays the “Fool” (the innocent helper and entertainer) in order to make Volpone into a fool. To make someone else into a fool is both the primary method characters have for asserting power over one another and the primary way Jonson brings across his moral message: the characters in the play who are made into fools—Corbaccio, Corvino, Voltore, Volpone—are the characters whose morality we are supposed to criticize.
Symbols
Venice
As the seat of greed, corruption, and decadence, at least according to the prevalent preconceptions, Venice was the benefactor of years of stereotype in English theater. Italians in general were considered as sensuous, decadent humans, because to their extraordinarily sophisticated culture, history of Machiavellian politicians (Lorenzo de Medici, Cesare Borgia, Machiavelli himself) and exquisite (and frequently erotic) love poetry. Though not anything considered particularly bad now, this type of decadence made English people apprehensive of being infected with immorality, and Venetians were perceived as the worst of the group. The direct influence of the “power of Venice” to corrupt can best be shown in the Sir Politic Would-be subplot, where the English knight Sir Politic “goes Venetian” and becomes a deceitful would-be robber. But the Venetian setting probably made the story more believable for most English audiences, signifying the fascination of the play with disguise and deceit, though also, perhaps against Jonson’s intentions, distancing them from the play’s moral message, by placing the greed in a historic far away place traditionally associated with greed, instead of right in the heart of London.
Animalia
There is a “fable” running throughout the play, through the associations the characters’ names generate with animals. It is fairly basic and relates the tale of a crafty “Fox” (Volpone in Italian), ringed by a mischievous “Fly” ( Mosca in Italian), who helps the Fox mislead numerous carrion-birds—a vulture (Voltore), a crow (Corvino) and a raven (Corbaccio) into losing their feathers (their fortune). The animal imagery accentuates the notion of “parasitism” throughout the play, when one living form feeds off of another. And it should also be recalled that fables are tales with straightforward moral lessons, delivered for a didactic purpose. Though far more complicated, Volpone, at its heart shares the same objective, making the use of “fable-like” symbolism suitable and helps in grasping the content of the play.
Dedication, Arguments, and Prologue
Summary
The play is dedicated to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, both of which having just awarded Jonson honorary doctorates at the time of the play’s creation. He briefly addresses the moral aims of the play and its relationship to classical drama. In the Argument, Jonson presents a concise explanation of the play’s plot in the form of an acrostic on Volpone’s name. The prologue then introduces the play to the viewing audience, advising them that “with a little luck,” it will be a hit; Jonson closes by promising that the audience’s cheeks will burn red from laughter after viewing his work.
Analysis
These beginning passages of the play, before we are exposed to the action, may seem redundant. But they assist us grasp the drama in numerous ways. First, in the mundane sense; the Argument, as Jonson names it, conveys in brief encapsulated form the premise of the play, a thesis that will be properly articulated in the first scene.
The Dedication, however, gives us a clue as to Jonson’s purpose in composing Volpone. First of all, he is keen on writing a “moral” play. By putting to task those “poetasters” (his disparaging name for a lesser writer) who have degraded the theatrical profession with their immoral work, Jonson underscores the moral aims of his play. His play will convey a moral message. And it will do so in line with the traditions of drama followed by classical dramatists, that is, the dramatists of ancient Greece. This connection to the past further implies that the play we are going to read (or witness) is a work of considerable intellectual and moral weight.
But, in the Prologue, we see a another side of Jonson. This side of Jonson is boastful—this play was written in five weeks, says Jonson, all the jokes are mine, I think it’s going to be a tremendous hit, and you are all going to laugh uncontrollably until your cheeks turn red. The Prologue sets a loud tone that the rest of the play will follow. So in these initial verses, Jonson begins to mix a serious intellectual and moral message with a raucous, light- hearted and entertaining tone, reinforcing the explicit promise he makes in the Prologe “to mix profit with your pleasure.” In other words, Jonson asserts that Volpone will serve as both an educational and entertaining work.
Act-I: Scene i
Summary
In the Italian city of Venice, Volpone, a Venetian magnifico, enters his house with his parasite Mosca. Volpone, known as “the great Fox,” talks about the beauty and ethereal qualities of his gold and how he earned it without hard work, possibly through cons. He also discusses the liberal way in which Volpone spends his treasure and the current con he is running, where he has no heirs and is extremely wealthy.
Analysis
The construction of the first scene of the play is straightforward, revealing the premise or situation of the comedy and firmly establishing Volpone as the protagonist. The play’s main theme is the satire of greed and obsession with money, and is introduced immediately through the first speech, which is an act of blasphemy, full of religious terms—”sacred,” “relic,” “heaven,” “saint,” and “Hail.”
Volpone explicitly values the worth of gold as higher than the worth of spiritual redemption and excellence, in short, gold, not God, has supreme importance for him. This substitution of money for God in the context of a prayer would have been shocking to an Elizabethan audience, but it still reverses our expectations by associating sacred, religious language with money usually thought to be profane (of low moral worth). As such, it is an example of situational irony, where the audience’s expectations in a given situation reversed from the norm; in other words, we expect prayer to be sacred, but Volpone makes it crass and profane.
Another example of situational irony might be that of a pickpocket who, in the act of picking someone’s pocket, has his pocket picked himself, and instead of gaining from the action, loses by it. The use of irony is a key element of satire in general, and used appropriately, irony is perfectly suited to Jonson’s intention to convey a moral message in an entertaining fashion. Irony can be used to attack a certain viewpoint or way of life, showing its inherent contradictions, and making a pointed commentary on contemporary society.
In Volpone, not only does Jonson use situational irony to convey his message, but he also uses verbal irony and dramatic irony. Verbal irony is very close to sarcasm; something is expressed whose actual meaning is the opposite of the literal meaning of the words; the difference between the two is that verbal irony is usually more subtle, relying on ambiguities in certain words and context to tip off the listener or reader to the actual meaning. Dramatic irony is the ironic effect created when someone doesn’t know something you do, and says something that’s normally reasonable but in the context quite stupid or funny.
Act -i Scene-ii
Summary
Mosca, a character in the play, introduces Volpone to a group of children, including Nano (a dwarf), Castrone (a eunuch), and Androgyno, who are all “freaks” of one sort or another. These characters are not only his servants but also his family, as Volpone has no wife, parent, child, or ally. The grotesque figures in the play represent an inner grotesqueness in Volpone, as they surround him with individuals with reproductive deformities, making the failure to reproduce seem more essential to his character rather than an accident of fate.
Analysis
The scene also sets a lighthearted, erudite tone for the play, highlighting several redeeming qualities that make him a sympathetic protagonist. Nano traces a lineage for Androgyno’s soul in rhyming couplets, demonstrating a gift for rhetoric similar to his master displayed in the first scene. Jonson uses this device to incorporate a great number of names from classical literature, signifying his allegiance to classical literature. Volpone follows the unities of classical drama: the unity of time (the audience and the characters must experience time at the same rate), the unity of place (the play should have only one setting), and the unity of action (the play should revolve around one action).
Nano’s song about “fools” refers directly to himself, as Volpone calls him his “fool,” but indirectly to Volpone. Fools can be thought of as the earliest professional comedians, pointing out the folly of the ruling classes for their own amusement. He is a source of laughter, not serious attack, and speaks truth, free from slaughter. This distance and outsiders’ perspective, as well as the freedom to speak his mind, gives him a moral superiority, especially in an age of hypocrisy, where truth-telling is in short supply.
In conclusion, Mosca’s introduction to Volpone’s bizarre “family” of children serves as a commentary on his inner grotesqueness and his lack of children. The play’s lighthearted, erudite tone and the use of classical literature contribute to its appeal to Elizabethan audiences.
Act -I Scene-iii and Scene- iv
Summary
Scene iii:Voltore the lawyer—whose name means “vulture” in Italian—enters with Mosca, and Mosca informs him that he will be Volpone’s heir. Voltore inquires about Volpone’s health, and Volpone expresses gratitude for both his benevolence and the substantial gold plate he received as a present. The magnifico subsequently notifies the lawyer that his health is deteriorating, and he anticipates imminent death. Voltore asks Mosca three times whether he is Volpone’s heir before he is ultimately satisfied with Mosca’s response, at which point he rejoices. He inquires about the source of his fortune, to which Mosca elucidates that it is partially attributable to Volpone’s longstanding appreciation for lawyers and their ability to articulate arguments for either side of a case instantaneously. He then begs Voltore not to forget him when the lawyer inherits Volpone’s money and becomes rich. Voltore departs contentedly, bestowing a kiss onto Mosca, prompting Volpone to spring from bed and commend his parasite for a task executed successfully. But the game swiftly starts again, as another would-be heir comes, identified only as “the raven.”
Scene iv: “The raven” is revealed to be Corbaccio, an elderly man whose name translates to “raven” in Italian, and who, according to Mosca, is in significantly poorer health than Volpone feigns. Corbaccio proposes to administer a medicine to Volpone, but Mosca declines, fearing that it may be Corbaccio’s method of hastening the dying process, essentially a type of poison. Mosca defends his reluctance by arguing that Volpone simply does not trust the medical profession in general, to which Corbaccio agrees. Corbaccio then inquires after Mosca’s health; as Mosca counts off the ever-worsening symptoms, Corbaccio stamps his approval of each one, except when he mishears one of Mosca’s statements and grows afraid that Volpone might be improving. However, Mosca informs him that Volpone is, in reality, deteriorating and is nearly deceased. This immensely delights Corbaccio, who observes that Volpone is even more ill than he is and expresses confidence that he will outlive him; he claims it rejuvenates him by twenty years. Corbaccio inquires about Volpone’s will; however, Mosca responds that it has not yet been composed. The elderly gentleman inquires about Voltore’s activities at Volpone’s residence; upon Mosca’s candid response—that he bestowed a piece of gold plate upon Volpone in anticipation of being included in his will—Corbaccio offers a bag of cecchines (Venetian coins) meant for Volpone. Mosca then explain how Corbaccio might be certain of being Volpone’s successor; by leaving the bag of cecchines, but also by writing Volpone as his sole heir. Mosca asserts that when Volpone composes his will, his gratitude will drive him to designate Corbaccio as his sole heir. Corbaccio departs promptly, and Volpone thereafter ridicules him relentlessly for attempting to acquire wealth from a terminally ill individual while he himself is near death.
Analysis
In Jonson’s satirical commentary on greed, the use of dramatic irony, situational irony, verbal irony, and repetition is employed to create a complex and humorous narrative. The “legacy hunter” characters, including Voltore, Corbaccio, Mosca, and Volpone, are pursuing a business strategy of finding a dying magnifico and ingratiating themselves with him using expensive gifts. However, since Volpone is not ill, their behavior seems ridiculous.
The characters attempt to deceive themselves into money by pretending they care about Volpone’s health, but they are deceived out of their own selfishness. They celebrate being named his heir or express approval over his worsening “symptoms,” revealing that their concern is not that Volpone gets better but that he gets worse. This hypocrisy is exposed to the audience by someone even more adept at lying than them.
Volpone and Mosca are conscious of the moral aspect of their game, emerging as likable characters in contrast to the legacy hunters. They are no worse than Volpone and Mosca, as they are no worse than the legacy hunters. Their motivations are purer, and they enjoy their machinations immensely. The repetition of would-be heirs from different walks of life, such as lawyers, merchants, and noblemen, indicates that greed is a characteristic of society as whole. Volpone is valorized because he is the only honest about his greed.
Volpone and Mosca are also conscious of the various ironies of the game and comment upon them. They make a living from their wit and their way with words, possessing an outsider’s viewpoint on society. The knowledge that Volpone is not ill separates them and us from Corvino, Corbaccio, and Voltore. Like the fool, they do not harm the people they mock, and the three prospective heirs are not made impoverished by their deceit, and no innocents are hurt.
Act-I Scene-V
Summary
A merchant named Corvino, arrives as the final would-be heir to Volpone’s fortune. He brings a pearl as a gift, and Mosca reveals that Volpone has been constantly saying his name, indicating the Fox’s desire for Corvino to be his heir. Corvino thanks Mosca for his help and asks if Volpone saw them celebrating. Mosca assures him that Volpone is blind and asks Corvino to join in the celebration. However, Corvino backs off and asks Mosca not to use violence.
Corvino pledges to share everything with Mosca when he inherits Volpone’s fortune, but he will not share his wife, Lady Politic Would-be. Mosca explains that Lady Politic’s reputation for promiscuity is overblown, and she is not beautiful enough to be promiscuous. Volpone is inflamed by Mosca’s description and vows to see her. However, she is never let out of the house by Corvino and is guarded by ten spies. Volpone decides to go in disguise, as this might be his first introduction to the beautiful Celia.
Analysis
The final scene in Volpone is a conclusion to the scenes with Voltore and Corbaccio, where Corvino is not significantly different from the first two characters. Volpone is gulled by Volpone and Mosca, who are portrayed as avarice to themselves, indicating the poetic justice of their act. This foreshadowing suggests that all greed will be punished, even Volpone’s own.
Mosca’s suggestion that Corvino kill Volpone raises doubts about Mosca’s loyalty and initially associates him with violence. The scene also introduces Corvino, who will become Volpone’s love interest, adding suspense to the plot. The main plot of Volpone is a fable, with each character personifying different animals with a direct moral message. “Volpone” means “Fox” in Italian, while “Mosca” means “Fly.” In this play, “Volpone” is the “cunning” Fox, while “Mosca” is the parasitical, insect-like creature, circling around the Fox and feeding off of him.
Voltore, Corbaccio, and Corvino act like carrion birds, circling around the Fox and waiting for him to die. However, the Fox is craftily faking his wounds, and the Fly helps him, leading to the birds losing their feathers (their wealth). This simple fable helps clearly enunciate the meaning of the play and suggests that the main characters are somewhat “beastly,” acting out animal instincts and not fully human.
Act-II Scene-i
Summary
In the public square outside Corvino’s home, Sir Politic Would-be, an English knight, and Peregrine, an English traveler, are strolling together. Sir Politic explains that his wife’s wish for them to visit Venice was to learn about local culture. Peregrine shares improbable stories from England, such as a raven building a nest in a king’s ship. Politic believes anything anyone tells him, and Peregrine shares a story about Mas’ Stone, a drunken illiterate who is believed to be a dangerous spy. Politic claims to know about a race of spy baboons living near China, which he calls “the Mameluchi,” another name for the Mamelukes. Peregrine sarcastically thanks Sir Politic for helping him navigate Venetian life, as he has only read books about Italy. Sir Politic seems to agree when Peregrine interrupts him, asking him to identify the people entering the square.
Analysis
The Sir Politic Would-be subplot of Volpone is a key component of Elizabethan drama, focusing on themes that are less central to the main story. In Volpone, the central characters, Sir Politic, Lady Politic, and Peregrine, play almost no role in the central plot. However, the satirical intent and light-hearted tone of the two plots are similar, with a focus on gullibility.
In the main plot, the gullibility of the main characters is inspired by their greed. In the subplot, Jonson attacks vanity, a selfish virtue. Sir Politic, who considers himself wise and learned, speaks confidently of knowing the ways of Venetians, even though he has only lived in Venice a short time. His name indicates his vice, as he “would be politic” or knowledgeable if he could, and his desire to appear so at all costs makes him agree to anything anyone says as if he knew it already.
The Sir Politic subplot is directed towards Italo-phile Englishmen, who were concerned about the moral degeneration of traveling to Italy. Italy was seen as a corrupt and decadent place, full of liars, swindlers, and immoral hedonists. Englishmen who traveled there risked bringing the moral contagion of vanity and deceit back to their homeland.
Sir Politic serves as an example of all Englishmen who go to Italy and are corrupted by its decadent ways. The satire leveled against his vanity is also leveled against his desire to talk and act like Italians. Peregrine, on the other hand, is a model of how one should behave in Italy. His name, which comes from the Latin for “wanderer,” indicates that he is just passing through this foreign land.
In conclusion, the Sir Politic Would-be subplot of Volpone is a key component of Elizabethan drama, focusing on themes such as gullibility, vanity, and the moral degeneration of traveling to Italy.
Act-ii Scene -ii and Scene-iii
Summary
Scene-ii: Mosca and Nano, disguised as scouts for Volpone, enter the square and establish themselves beneath Corvino’s house. Sir Politic identifies the crowd as a mountebank, a Renaissance Italy version of the nineteenth century American medicine-show men. He informs Peregrine that the Italian mountebanks are not all liars but are learned and excellent physicians. Volpone, disguised as Scoto Mantua, enters and engages in a long history of Scoto’s fictional life, detailing his difficulties due to rumor-mongering and the popularity of his new potion. He lists various illnesses, sings songs about its medicinal qualities, and convinces everyone to buy it at a special discount price of six pence. Scoto asks people to rub his oil on their handkerchiefs, and Celia, watching above, tosses down her handkerchief, and Scoto/Volpone engages in a tribute to her beauty, grace, and elegance.
Scene-iii: Corvino enters the scene, enraged by jealousy, beating Volpone and the crowd. He refers to them as characters from Comedia dell’Arte, including Flaminio, Franciscina, and himself as Pantalone di besognioni. Politic watches with shock, while Peregrine finds amusement in the events. They leave, and Peregrine plans to stay close to the English knight.
Analysis
Volpone’s fascination with disguises is a central aspect of his character, as he assumes at least three different disguises throughout the play. This enthusiasm for disguise has both positive and negative connotations, emphasizing his energy and imagination while also making him appear unstable and untrustworthy. His love for pretending to be others connects the central traits that define energy, imagination, and moral corruption.
Volpone’s inventiveness is particularly evident at the stage where his tricks are harmless, as dramatic art is partly based on the basic pleasure found in make-believe. However, this entertainment in deceit emphasizes the connection between stagecraft and lying, establishing a conflict between stagecraft and truth. Disguise can be used to conceal and reveal aspects of a person’s inner nature, which are usually invisible.
The play is a fiction, with characters who do not exist, and actors who play them in diguise to convey Jonson’s moral message: that greed and vanity are present everywhere and are demeaning vices. Scoto Mantua, the mountebank, represents his true, inner self, while Jonson’s dedication is written in prose. Scoto delivers his lines in prose, possibly because he is a “low” comic character or because he represents a direct authorial presence in the play.
Jonson’s life is also reflected in Scoto’s self-portrait, as he painted himself as a carnival huckster/alchemist, suggesting that he viewed his art as being similar to the art of both deceit, lies, and human vices. By transforming these valueless things into something valuable, Jonson transforms his art into a work of art that could entertain and instruct.
Act- II Scene -iv– Scene- vii
Summary
Scene-iv: Volpone whines his way back to his house about how beautiful Celia is and how much he loves her. Mosca listens to him and tells him that if he waits long enough, he will become Celia Volpone’s lover. To show his appreciation, Volpone asks Mosca if he thought he did a good job as Scoto. Mosca agrees. Mosca tells him that the whole crowd was fooled.
Scene-v: The scene takes place in Corvino’s home. Corvino tells Celia she is bad for throwing her handkerchief to Scoto Mantua. His wife is accused of wanting to cheat on him and making reasons to meet with her lovers. He feels like he was made a fool of in public. She begs him not to be jealous and says she never makes reasons like that and barely leaves the house, not even to go to church. But Corvino doesn’t believe her. She will not be able to leave the house or get within two or three feet of a window from now on, he says. She will also have to do everything backward, like dress, talk, and walk. If she doesn’t do what he says, he says he will cut her up in public to show what a bad woman she is.
Scene-vi: When Mosca comes to Corvino’s house, Corvino thinks he has good news: Volpone has died. Corvino, on the other hand, says that Volpone is better now, thanks to the healing oil of Scoto Mantua. There is anger in Corvino. Not only that, Mosca adds, but the doctors have now told him to find Volpone a woman to sleep with in order to slow his healing even more. whores, or courtesans, are suggested by Corvino, but Mosca says no because whores are too sneaky and experienced, and they could steal their inheritance from both of them. And instead, he says that a good woman is needed, someone that Corvino can control. Volpone’s bug also says that one of the doctors gave up his own daughter. This makes Corvino feel more confident, so he tells Mosca that he thinks Celia will sleep with Volpone. Mosca is proud of Corvino for making sure that he will be called heir.
Scene-vii: Corvino comes home to find his wife crying after Mosca has left. He makes her feel better by telling her that he was never jealous and doesn’t feel jealous now. He tells her that being jealous doesn’t help, and he says she’ll see how jealous he is at Volpone’s house, which is a subtle reference to his plan to seduce her.
Analysis
Celia in the play is a character who provokes grotesque reactions from both Volpone and Corvino. Volpone uses religious imagery to describe his love for Celia, but now he finds a new “better angel” in Celia. His desire for her is instinctual, not refined or rational, and his language is grotesque, describing his love as a “flame” trapped inside his body. This situational irony demonstrates that Volpone’s light-hearted, lustful ways are not as innocent as they may appear, as they can easily develop into an unhealthy, unnatural sexual obsession.
Corvino also has a pathological, grotesque response to Celia’s body, with intense, sensual imagery suggesting he may be in the grip of some sort of sexual psychosis. He describes the handkerchief-tossing incident with intense, sensual imagery, suggesting that he may be in the grip of some sort of sexual psychosis. In contrast, Volpone’s earlier outburst seems tame, and Corvino ends his first diatribe with a threat of murder, indicating that sex and violence are firmly linked in his psyche.
Corvino’s grotesque sexual obsession is firmly linked to his sense of property, as he considers Celia to be his property. He uses the vocabulary of science to convey the grotesque image, strongly associated with the rising bourgeois merchant class of Jonson’s day. When he threatens to kill her entire family as relatiation for her supposed infidelity, he uses the language of law: those murders would be “the subject of my justice.”
This scene serves to link Corvino’s materialistic values to grotesque, unnatural, and violent sexual obsession, and it also shows the fundamental hypocrisy of those values through irony. Mosca tests which impulse is stronger in Corvino—his sexual jealousy or his desire for material possession—he quickly discovers that it is the latter. The justice of the situation is determined by whether or not Corvino makes a profit, not on any moral issue. Corvino’s reversal is an example of situational irony, revealing Corvino’s talk of justice to be hypocritical, a means of exercising power over people like Celia who care about such things.
Act-III Scene-i and Scene-ii
Summary
Scene-i: Scene 1 of Act III takes place in Volpone’s house. This scene is made up of just Mosca talking to himself. He walks in and says that he is scared of how narcissistic he is becoming. The fact that he is helping Volpone run his con game so well is making him love himself more. Then he talks about what it means to be a “parasite,” calling it a “art” that most people do: “All the world is little else, in nature, / But parasites or sub-parasites.”
Scene-ii: In Act III, Scene II, Bonario, Corbaccio’s son, comes in. He laughs at Mosca and calls him a bug when Mosca begs to talk to him. Mosca begs him not to be so mean and to feel sorry for her. To Mosca’s plea, Bonario replies. Then Mosca tells Bonario that his father has taken away his inheritance. At first, the son doesn’t believe it, but Mosca tells him to do what he says. He says that Bonario will be able to see his father Corbaccio being kicked out of the family business. They leave the stage together.
Analysis
Mosca’s soliloquy is a crucial aspect of the play, as it allows the audience to gain insight into the character’s inner workings and motivations. In this case, Mosca is growing increasingly independent, arranging Volpone’s seduction of Celia on stage. Jonson uses this speech to foreshadow later developments in the play, such as Mosca’s growing independence and his growing dissatisfaction with his identity as a lackey to Volpone.
In Act V, Mosca becomes a nobleman, temporarily slipping out of his skin to become a nobleman. He indirectly discusses himself through an abstract discussion of parasitism, which he sees as a trait that defines him. As a true parasite, Mosca is dependent on Volpone for his life and food, expressing this dependence through displays of servility and pathos. However, when Mosca talks about being a true parasite, he overturns this image, identifying himself as strong, quick, agile, inventive, and able to fake any emotion.
People called “parasites” like Mosca play the same game as everyone else but with more cunning, as demonstrated in his dealings with Bonario. They show weakness to hide their true strength, and the goal of the game is to feed off the wealth and livelihood of others without doing any real work yourself. This statement of moral equality, “we are all parasites,” clearly refers not only to the legacy hunters but also to Volpone, suggesting that Mosca considers himself less subordinate to Volpone and more of an equal.
Mosca gradually develops into an antagonist for Volpone, but his honesty, resourcefulness, and correct appraisal of the situation make him a sympathetic character. This tension creates tension in the play, as to who we should side for in the battle, who is the protagonist and who is the antagonist. In the end, the answer seems to be neither, as both characters are punished for their actions. However, there are problems in the way Jonson brings this result about.
Act-III Scene-iii –Scene-v
Summary
Scene-iii: Volpone brings in Volpone, his midget, his eunuch, and his hermaphrodite. Volpone sees that Mosca is running late getting home. He asks Nano to keep him busy because he is bored. Nano obliges by talking about how fools make people laugh more with their faces than with their brains (their wit). There is a knock on the door, and Volpone thinks it must be Mosca. Nano goes outside to find out who it is and then comes back to say that it is a “beautiful madam.” Volpone works out that it’s Lady Politic Would-be. He tells Nano to let her in, but he doesn’t want to.
Scene-iv: Lady Politic Would-be walks into an anteroom with Nano and asks him to let Volpone know that she has come (Act III, Scene IV). She worries about how she looks and says that her dress doesn’t show her neck enough but that she is still dressed well. The servant women who work for Volpone are scolded by her for not dressing and making up properly. She finally starts to talk to Volpone. Volpone tells her that he had a strange dream the night before in which a “strange fury” broke into his house and tore off the roof with her voice. She doesn’t respond to the obvious reference to herself and starts a (very one-sided) conversation with Volpone, telling him what medicines he should take to get over his bad dream. They also talk about different Italian poets and their strengths and weaknesses before she gives a short lecture on how philosophy can help people who are having mental problems. Volpone is pleading to be saved by the end of the scene.
Scene-v: Scene v of Act III: Volpone’s prayers to be saved from Lady Politic are answered when Mosca comes back. Volpone tells him he needs to get rid of Lady Politic. Mosca quickly chooses to tell Lady Politic that he saw Sir Politic rowing a gondola with a courtesan through the water of Venice not long ago. Sir Politic was talking to the young English tourist Peregrine, but Lady Politic thinks Mosca is telling the truth and leaves with the dwarf to look for her husband. Mosca then tells Volpone that Corbaccio is on his way, which will make Volpone his son. Volpone thanks Mosca for his help and then lies down to rest.
Analysis
Lady Politic, identified by her husband Sir Politic as the reason they came to Venice, serves as his female counterpart in her vanity. She embodies the dangers of becoming too engrossed in Italian culture, as she lists seven Italian poets and discusses Aretine, a well-known poet known for his erotic and obscene poems.
The idea of satirizing a woman for talking too much and fussing over her appearance is considered tired clichés and sexist. Volpone’s desire to sleep with Celia does not threaten his reputation. However, the conversation’s comedy is based on Lady Politic’s trait of wanting to be seen as knowledgeable and fit in, but this desire backfires completely. She talks so much that those around her feel exhausted, intimidated, and bored, and her obliviousness to feelings of scorn and contempt.
Lady Politic’s mistake in not realizing that Plato lived nearly two thousand years before any of the poets she names, her inability to pick up on Volpone’s praise of Sophocles’ quote, and her failure to realize that Volpone’s dream of having his house torn apart by a “strange fury” is referring to her. The tone of the scene is farcical, dominated by extreme, exaggerated, over-the-top behavior from the characters for humorous effect. The light-hearted tone contrasts with the seriousness of the next few scenes, emphasizing the shift in tone toward seriousness.
Act-iii Scene-vi and Scene-vii
Summary
Scene-vi: Mosca and Bonario come in. The king tells Bonario to hide so that he can see his father take Volpone’s place as heir. Even though Bonario agrees with Mosca, he still doesn’t accept what Mosca says after Mosca leaves.
Scene-vii: Mosca, Corvino, and Celia enter. It is said by Mosca to Bonario that Corbaccio will be there soon. Celia begs to not have to sleep with Volpone. Corvino tells her that his choice is final and that he doesn’t want any protests based on “honor.” “Honor” doesn’t exist in reality, he says, so losing it won’t hurt anyone. Mosca tells Volpone that the two have come. Volpone says he is too far gone to change his mind, but he thanks Corvino a lot, which seems to imply that Corvino will be his heir. Celia begs one last time not to have to sleep with Volpone, but Corvino insists. He even threatens to drag her through the streets and call her a whore if she doesn’t give in. According to him, the act is not important because Volpone is old and won’t take advantage of her. Besides, it will make him a lot of money. Volpone jumps off of his bed and starts to seduce Celia as soon as they are alone. To Celia, he says that she is heaven to him and that he is a much better lover than Corvino. He tells her about all the sensual joys she will enjoy if she falls in love with him. But Celia isn’t moved. She turns him down, tells him to stop, and says she won’t talk about what happened. Volpone gets angry when she says no, and he tells her that he will take her by force if she won’t make love to him on her own. She cries out to God, but Volpone tells her it’s for nothing. Suddenly, Bonario jumps out from behind his hiding place, saves Celia, and takes her away. Volpone is upset that his trick has been found out.
Analysis
The play revolves around Volpone, a protagonist who is both sympathetic and sociopath. He exposes moral folly but his motives can sometimes seem malicious. Instead, the money he gains from his con is a means to an end, satisfying his appetites and desires. This section of the play forms a turning point in the main plot’s storyline and our perception of Volpone.
Volpone’s “seduction speech” unites the contradictory parts of his character through his description of his love for Celia. He articulates an alternate conception of morality and sacredness, where the highest form of spiritual fulfillment is achieved through the satisfaction of every conceivable desire for pleasure. His imagery is rich in hyperbole and religious imagery, comparing Celia’s love to “heaven” or “a plot of paradise.”
Volpone’s use of allusion to famous lovers throughout history serves two purposes: it widens and elevates his discussion, giving him and Celia immediate historic significance, and making explicit Volpone’s desire to make love to Celia in a stylish, erudite way. Jonson uses alliteration to heighten the poetic quality of the speech, and at one point Volpone bursts into song. His catalogues of sensual delights and romantic disguises provide a feast of imagery for the reader, underscoring Volpone’s imaginativeness and liveliness.
Against this hedonism, Celia and Bonario serve as the twin voices of moral criticism, represting both the codes of religion and those of honor. They serve as foils to Volpone, exposing his ruthlessness, even though neither are guilty of any moral transgression. Celia tries to appeal to whatever trace of “holy saints” or heaven Volpone has within him, but her complete lack of success implies that he has none.
When Celia cries out to God for help as Volpone prepares to rape her, Volpone says she cries “In Vain,” just before Bonario leaps out to save Celia. This moment is a direct refutation of Volpone’s inverted value-system, where he values immediate self-gratification over God. This is the turning point of the play, as Volpone begins to lose control over the situation after having lost control over himself.
Act-III Scene-Viii and Scene-ix
Summary
Scene-viii: Bonario cut Mosca with a sword on his way out, and Mosca is bleeding when he walks in. Volpone is worried about the injury, but Volpone easily agrees with Mosca that he is to blame for the bad things that happened when Celia escaped and Bonario found out that Volpone was lying. They think about what they should do for a short time, and Mosca suggests that they kill themselves. Then they hear Corbaccio knocking on the door.
Scene-ix: Corbaccio walks in first, and Voltore is right behind him. Mosca tells Corbaccio that his son was trying to kill him because he didn’t get his fortune. Corbaccio easily believes the lie and agrees to make Volpone his heir. He asks Voltore when Volpone will die so that he can get his money. When Voltore hears this, he gets mad and charges Mosca of lying. “Which of you or Corbaccio is going to be the heir?” he asks. Mosca says he is loyal to Voltore and then lies about what just happened when he talks about what happened. Mosca tells Voltore that he brought Bonario in to see his father give Volpone his inheritance so that Bonario would be angry and kill his cruel father, which would make it possible for Voltore to get the magnifico’s money. However, Mosca says that Bonario got antsy while waiting for his father and took Celia hostage and made her “cry rape” in order to blame Volpone and stop him from inheriting. Voltore, always the lawyer, quickly sides with Mosca because he sees a threat to his own interests: if Volpone is found guilty, he won’t be able to inherit anything or leave an inheritance
Analysis
When Volpone loses control with Celia, he violates the implicit norms he first appeared to adhere to, or at least may have deluded the audience into believing he was adhering to: that he sought only to deceive and harm those who deceived and harmed themselves. This has now been demonstrated to be untrue; the audience has revealed themselves to be deceived by Volpone, resulting in a diminished likelihood of supporting him. The erosion of our empathy for Volpone, coupled with his diminishing influence over the circumstances, results in his “disestablishment” as the play’s protagonist; he ceases to be the hero, or even the anti-hero, that he has represented since the initial scene. From his viewpoint in the play, he has relinquished authority over his own existence. Consequently, the progressively autonomous Mosca emerges as a surrogate protagonist, while Voltore assumes the position of Mosca’s “sidekick.” In Act V, Volpone appears to reassert dominion over his existence and his status as protagonist, culminating in a catastrophic clash with Mosca. The didactic aspect of Volpone is emphasized here (an artwork is didactic if it seeks to instruct or educate). Jonson instructs us in this scene to never place trust in someone like Volpone, a dynamic character adept at deception, and he aims to demonstrate that ultimately, such individuals are invariably undone, often by their own choice to confide in others.
Act-IV Scene-i—Scene -iii
Summary
Scene-i: Sir Politic and Peregrine are walking along a canal, and Politic undertakes to teach Peregrine a thing or two about life in Venice. His two main points are that one should never tell the truth to strangers, and that one should always have proper table manners, which Politic then goes on to explain in full. Contradicting his first bit of advice, Politic then tells Peregrine about several moneymaking schemes he has in the works. To begin with, he plans to supply the State of Venice with red herrings, bought at a discount rate from a cheese vendor in another Italian state. He also has a plan to convince the Council of Venice to outlaw all timber-boxes small enough to fit into a pocket (in case a disaffected person might hide gunpowder in his or her tinderbox), and then supply the larger tinderboxes himself. His last great idea is a “plague- test,” to be administered on ships arriving from the Middle East and other plague-infected areas so that they might not have to undergo the usual fifty or sixty days of quarantine. The plan involves blowing air through a ship from one side, while at the same time exposing the crew to thirty livres worth of onions cut in half from the other side; if the onion changes, color, then the crew has the plague. Politic then make an off-handed comment about how he could, if he wanted to, sell the entire state of Venice to the Turk. Just so Peregrine will know everything about his personal life, Politic lets him read his diary, which includes every single detail of Politic’s day, including his decision to urinate at St. Mark’s cathedral.
Scene-ii: Lady Politic, Nano, and some serving women enter, looking for her husband. Sir Politic’s wife complains that his unfaithfulness is ruining her complexion. They suddenly see Politic and Peregrine together. They meet, and Sir Politic introduces Peregrine to Lady Politic. But Lady Politic assumes that Peregrine must be the prostitute of whom Mosca was speaking, disguised as a man. She rails against her husband for his unfaithfulness, while he reacts with complete and utter incomprehension. Peregrine asks Lady Politic to forgive him for offending her, though he has no idea how he has. When he begins complimenting Lady Politic’s beauty, she reacts with suppressed outrage.
Scene-iii:Mosca enters and finds Lady Politic incensed over her husband’s infidelity. She explains to him that she has found the prostitute he mentioned in Act III, and points out Peregrine. Mosca then explains that she is mistaken. The real prostitute (according to him) is currently at the Scrutineo (he is referring to Celia). Lady Politic then apologizes in a very sexually suggestive way. Peregrine is now incensed, for he thinks that Sir Politic is trying to prostitute him to Lady Politic, and vows that he will get revenge.
Analysis
The moral satire of the play becomes slightly obscured in the Fourth Act, as story and tone issues take precedence. Jonson juxtaposes the heated confrontation of Volpone, Celia, and Bonario with comedic moments featuring the Politic Would-bes. These scenes contribute to maintaining a rather light tone in the play. In IV.i, Sir Politic’s character is further developed; he is portrayed as both conceited and avaricious. However, he exhibits avarice in an entirely non-threatening manner, and his schemes are absurdly implausible. He is, in many respects, a sympathetic figure, consistently bearing the brunt of mockery for his vanity, exemplified when he has Peregrine read his daily notebook, which constitutes one of the play’s most humorous segments. Only an individual with an excessive degree of narcissism would document statements such as “I threw three beans over the threshold” and “at St. Mark’s, I urinated,” while anticipating that others would find them intriguing. However, he appears unconcerned, as he seems oblivious to the fact that others regard his behavior as ludicrous.
Lady Politic surpasses herself by accepting Peregrine as the courtesan depicted by Mosca and thereafter advances towards him upon learning from Mosca that he is a male. The tone of the play shifts towards farce once more. This section of the play fulfills several storyline considerations. Jonson resolved the subplot by providing Peregrine with a motive for his anger against Sir Politic: the lascivious conduct of Sir Politic’s wife. This appears to be a feeble justification, particularly by contemporary standards. This section of the play highlights the growing significance of Mosca, who orchestrates Lady Politic’s involvement. Intended to identify Celia (the woman he mentions as appearing before the Senate). Mosca will indeed dominate the act, alongside Voltore.
Act-IV, Scene iv-vi
Summary
Scene-iv: The Scrutineo, the Venetian state’s legal tribunals, is now the scene. Mosca, Corbaccio, Corvino, and Voltore come in. They will soon appear before the Scrutineo to respond to Bonario’s and Celia’s charges. Voltore will make the argument because he is an attorney. Bonario worries that Voltore will now be a co-heir due to his service to Volpone, but Mosca reassures him that he need not fear. Additionally, he fears that his reputation would be damaged in front of the Scrutineo (perhaps due to his choice having sex with his wife). He is reassured by Mosca that he has provided Voltore with an account of the incident that will save Corvino’s honor. Additionally, Mosca informs Voltore that he has another witness who may be called upon, but he does not identify them.
Scene-v: Bonario, Celia, a Notario (notary), and a few Commandadori (guards) enter with the four Avocatori, who are judges in the Venetian state. The Avocatori talk about how they have never heard anything as “monstrous” as the story that Celia and Bonario just told them: that Corbaccio disinherited his son Bonario, that Volpone attempted to rape Celia, and that Corvino consented to prostitute his wife to Volpone in the hopes that Volpone would make him heir. Mosca responds that he is too sick to come, but the Avocatori urge that he come nonetheless and send several of the Commandadori to pick him up. They demand to know where Volpone is. Then Voltore addresses the Scrutineo. His narrative differs greatly from Celia’s and Bonario’s. He asserts that Celia and Bonario are lovers, that Bonario went to Volpone’s house intending to kill Corbaccio for denying him his inheritance, but when he failed to show up, he attacked Volpone instead, and that Celia’s accusations of rape were a part of a plot that she and Bonario came up with to frame Volpone in order to keep Volpone from getting his inheritance. The “proofs” of his story are then presented by Voltore. These include the testimonies of Corbaccio and Corvino, who both attest to the account. Corvino also states that he possesses their love letters (which are actually fake) and that he has personally witnessed Bonario and Celia making love. Mosca goes on to say that he sustained injuries while protecting his master. Corvino accuses Celia of acting after she faints. The Avocatori start to question the veracity of Celia and Bonario’s account. A “lady” who saw Celia in a gondola with her “knight” is the “surprise witness” that Mosca then reports to the court. The Avocatori express their surprise at the turn of events as he departs to pick her up.
Scene-vi: Mosca comes in with Lady Politic Would-be, his unexpected witness. She supports Mosca’s assertion by insulting Celia. The judges try to reassure her that she hasn’t, but they are unable to say anything. She then apologizes sincerely to them for embarrassing the court. After that, Voltore presents his last “proof”. Voltore remarks humorously that they may now see Celia and Bonario’s rapist and criminal as Volpone enters, appearing elderly and disabled. Voltore interprets Bonario’s suggestion that Volpone should be “tested”—which he is—as “tortured” because he is fake, and Voltore ironically implies that torture could be a treatment for Volpone’s condition. The Avocatori insist that Bonario and Celia be removed and kept apart because they believe Voltore’s story. They express fury at Bonario and Celia’s “deceit” and apologize to Volpone for disturbing him. Then, Mosca commends Voltore for his efforts. Corvino, who remains concerned that Voltore will receive a portion of Volpone’s wealth, is reassured by him. Additionally, he insists that Corbaccio reimburse Voltore. After Corbaccio and Voltore depart, Mosca tells Lady Politic Would-be that she will actually become Volpone’s major heir because of her support today.
Analysis
The Fourth Act is characterized by Volpone’s near-total absence from the play, with Mosca assuming the role of the primary catalyst for the plot. Although Mosca has been pivotal throughout the play, he distinctly emerges as an autonomous character in the Fourth Act, orchestrating the arrangement for Lady Politic. Potential witnesses will testify against Celia. Volpone’s absence in the Act symbolizes the increasing estrangement between him and the audience; by his attempted rape, he forfeits our compassion, which is represented by his temporary removal from the play. Mosca occupies the void created by Volpone’s absence, while Voltore assumes the role of his accomplice. This alteration in the play’s emphasis highlights Mosca’s autonomy from Volpone; Mosca is now capable of advancing the narrative independently. This augmented autonomy from Volpone, regarding the capacity to propel the narrative, presages the subsequent Act, in which Mosca would endeavor to seize Volpone’s societal position. The victory of Mosca and Voltore against Celia and Bonario in The Scrutineo signifies the supremacy of theatrical artifice over veracity. The Scrutineo can be seen as the platform upon which they function. The Scrutineo served as the building for the Venetian Senate, which was the principal governing authority of the Venetian state. The Venetian state epitomized decadence and dishonesty; the Scrutineo, as its locus of power, was profoundly linked to illusion and deception. Moreover, one can readily envision the scene orchestrated such that the theatre audience (viewing Volpone) becomes integrated with the spectators at the Scrutineo, thereby transforming the audience into direct witnesses of the drama between the characters and converting the Scrutineo into a genuine theatre with actual patrons.
Voltore and Mosca’s method of fabricating their illusion parallels that of playwrights, employing language and imagery in a theatrical fashion. They do not merely fabricate a falsehood; they narrate a tale. Voltore constructs a narrative for the Senate replete with archetypal figures reminiscent of a sensational drama: the dishonest spouse (Celia), the violent and duplicitous offspring (Bonario), the innocent and wronged husband (Corvino), and the misled patriarch (Corbaccio). Corvino’s recurrent interjections of lascivious details regarding Celia—”these eyes/Have seen her glued unto that piece of cedar / That fine well-timbered gallant”—heighten the dramatic tension of the moment, culminating in a pair of unexpected narrative twists. Lady Politic Would-be’s denunciation of Celia and Volpone’s abrupt entrance, appearing unwell and powerless. Bonario and Celia’s objections are integrated into Voltore’s narrative, akin to a villain within a play’s plot; Voltore employs verbal irony, a technique favored by Jonson, to mock Bonario’s proposal to test Volpone for deceit: “Best try him, then, with goads or burning irons; / Put him to the strappado: I have heard, / The rack hath cured the gout.” Bonario’s remark exemplifies the kind of rhetoric one would expect from a homicidal, deranged guy like him. The audience of this metatheatrical performance consists of the four Avocatori, whose escalating ire reflects our own, albeit we recognize that their indignation stems from erroneous convictions. When a judge remarks, “’tis a pity two such prodigies should live,” his assertion exemplifies dramatic irony. He aims to reference Celia and Bonario; nonetheless, it is evident that the assertion more accurately characterizes Volpone and Mosca. A discerning reader would observe that our anger towards Volpone and Mosca immerses us in a specific reality akin to that experienced by the four judges—through strategically arranged images and words, with virtuous characters contending against malevolent ones, eliciting our sympathy and engaging us in their conflict. It may render us highly skeptical about the practice of drama in its entirety. The drama appears to rely on the identical tactics of deception employed by Voltore and Mosca. However, asserting that Voltore and Mosca are dramatists does not imply that all dramatists resemble Voltore and Mosca. Jonson concedes in his dedication that numerous dramatic poets depend on sensationalism to market their plays, which adversely affect the moral fabric of society. This scenario serves as an exercise in identifying sensationalism, distinguishing between quality and inferior performances; those that mislead and obfuscate, and those, such as Jonson’s, that strive to convey reality.
Act-V, Scene i-iii
Summary
Scene-i: Volpone returns home fatigued following the events at the Scrutineo. He asserts that he has become weary of his deception and desires its conclusion. Feigning illness in public has rendered some of the symptoms he has been falsely exhibiting, such as cramping and tremors, strikingly authentic. The prospect of perhaps falling ill disheartens and terrifies him; to dispel this notion, he consumes two potent beverages and contacts Mosca.
Scene-ii: Volpone summons Mosca and conveys his desire to conclude the deception. They evaluate the success of the entire convention and commend themselves for their erudition, bravery, and ingenuity. Mosca counsels Volpone to cease his life of deception, as he will never surpass his own cunning. Volpone appears to concur, and they commence deliberating the issue of remuneration for Voltore’s services, a topic that Mosca emphasizes. However, Volpone abruptly resolves to execute one last jest on the heirs seeking his fortune. He summons Castrone and Nano, instructing them to traverse the streets and announce that Volpone is deceased. He instructs Mosca to don his garments and feign that Volpone has designated him the heir to the estate upon the arrival of the legacy seekers, utilizing a genuine will that identifies Mosca as the heir. Mosca observes the distress that will afflict Voltore, Corbaccio, Corvino, and Lady Politic upon realizing that he has been favored over them in the fraud at the Scrutineo. Voltore arrives shortly, as Volpone conceals himself behind a curtain.
Scene-iii: Voltore arrives to discover Mosca conducting an inventory. Believing the property now belongs to him, he commends Mosca’s diligence. He retrieves the will to examine its contents. Corbaccio, evidently on the brink of death, is transported by his attendants. Corvino subsequently enters, followed shortly by Lady Politic Would-be. Throughout this period, Mosca persistently catalogs Volpone’s assets. All four characters subsequently peruse the will; they respond with astonishment and request clarification. Mosca responds to each individual sequentially, delivering a brief address that recounts the falsehoods and other unethical behaviors attributed to them. Lady Politic ostensibly proposed to grant Mosca sexual favors in exchange for Volpone’s estate. Corvino wrongfully accused his wife of infidelity and labeled himself a cuckold; Corbaccio disinherited his offspring. Voltore elicits a degree of sympathy from Mosca, who conveys genuine remorse for Voltore’s exclusion from heirship. After Mosca concludes his conversation with a character, that individual departs. Once Voltore departs, Mosca and Volpone find themselves alone again, and Volpone commends Mosca for his excellent performance. Volpone desires to revel in the misfortune of the four dupes, prompting Mosca to propose that he masquerade as a commandadore (a sergeant or guard) and confront them in the street. Volpone commends Mosca for his astute concept.
Analysis
Jonson’s objective throughout the play is to mock avarice in all its manifestations. Initially, Volpone served as the vehicle for Jonson’s satire; he inverted the avarice of the legacy seekers, engendering a scenario in which their greed culminated in a total forfeiture of dignity, and, ironically, the very asset they sought to acquire: wealth. However, Volpone has yielded to his own kind of avarice, motivated by his personal ambitions and cravings for Celia. Consequently, he has slandered two innocent individuals, Celia and Bonario. In Jonson’s comedic moral framework, this breach must be addressed and penalized; Celia and Bonario are culpable solely of insipidity; their incarceration is, in essence, “not humorous”. Volpone is no longer the vehicle of Jonson’s mockery. He has now become the focus of it, and the assault continues, once again, through irony.
A predominant theme in the concluding act is the concept of disguise as reality; Volpone has deceived several individuals to such an extent that his fabrications are now perceived as fact in the public domain, resulting in dire repercussions for Volpone. Volpone’s desire to conclude his con-game suggests a wish for resolution; yet, it becomes evident that this will not be straightforward, since the fabrications he has propagated are too potent and widely embraced to vanish effortlessly. He returns from the senate lamenting pains and aches that closely align with those he has been mimicking; the “cramp” and the “palsy,” which he had ridiculed Corbaccio for yielding to in Act I. These may signify a guilty conscience; yet, they also serve as a metaphor for Volpone’s successful obfuscation of the distinction between falsehood and reality. Once more, we might employ the metaphor of stagecraft: in Act IV, Volpone transgresses the barrier between the “stage” (his private existence) and “reality” (the public domain of the Scrutineo) by projecting his “performance” into the world and feigning illness in public. Ironically, it is at this juncture that Volpone impulsively resolves to end his life, employing the medium of the dramatist, the written word (the will).
When Volpone believes he is extricating himself from his duplicitous scheme, his “play,” he is, in fact, removing himself from reality entirely. The “exit from reality” transpires when Volpone retreats behind the arras, momentarily transforming into a member of the audience of Ben Jonson’s theater, thereby becoming a spectator rather than a participant in his own existence. At this juncture, Mosca adopts Volpone’s function as the focal point of the play’s action and its questionable moral authority; he admonishes each legacy seeker in succession for their duplicity. Volpone revels—almost sadistically—in the vindictiveness with which Mosca reminds each character of the cruel and immoral deeds they undertook in pursuit of Volpone’s wealth. The absurdity of the situation is highlighted by Volpone’s remark, “Rare, Mosca!” “How his villainy suits him!” which foreshadows subsequent events in the play.
Act-V, Scene-iv
Summary
Peregrine enters disguised as a trader. He is accompanied by three additional merchants. They practise a plan devised by Peregrine to exact revenge on Sir Politic; Peregrine emphasizes that his sole intention is to intimidate Sir Pol, not to harm him. The traders conceal themselves, and Peregrine initiates his scheme. Peregrine instructs Sir Pol’s serving-woman to inform the knight that “a merchant has urgent business.” Upon exiting his study, where he has been composing an apology letter to his wife, Sir Pol remains oblivious to the fact that he is conversing with Peregrine, who is successfully disguised. Peregrine, also known as the Merchant, informs Sir Politic that the young man Sir Pol conversed with earlier that day, namely Peregrine himself, has reported to the State of Venice that Sir Pol intends to sell Venice to the Turks. Sir Pol instantly believes Peregrine and is filled with terror. Ultimately, he did inform Peregrine that he could sell Venice to the Turks; although he was jesting, it now appears that Peregrine has misconstrued this in a perilous manner. Peregrine has not disclosed any such information to anyone; yet, when the merchants arrive at the door, Peregrine informs Sir Pol that it is state officials come to apprehend him.
Pol, under Peregrine’s recommendation, resolves to conceal himself within a tortoise-shell wine barrel; he promptly executes this plan and instructs Peregrine to inform his servant to incinerate his documents. Upon the merchants’ arrival, they traverse the chamber; Peregrine “informs” them of his status as a merchant, here to observe a tortoise (in reality, Sir Pol concealed within a wine cask). The merchants marvel at the tortoise, and Peregrine/the Merchant informs them that the tortoise is sufficiently robust for them to mount. Indeed, they do. They inquire whether the turtle is capable of movement, to which Peregrine confirms affirmatively. The tortoise complies, and they observe that it is adorned with garters and gloves. Removing the tortoise shell, they disclose Sir Politic. Peregrine, having laughed at his cost, asserts that he and Sir Politic are now even and expresses remorse for the incineration of the knight’s documents that ensued from the jest. The merchants and Peregrine abandon Sir Politic to languish in his own disgrace and self-pity. The mistreated Englishman inquires of his servant on Lady Politic’s whereabouts; she informs him that she has resolved to return home for the sake of her health. Sir Politic wholeheartedly agrees with his wife’s plans.
Analysis
In a way, Peregrine’s last moment with Sir Politic is a complete farce meant to make us laugh. However, it also portends more somber events that will take place in the play’s main storyline, occurrences that are essential to its didactic and moral satirical goals. Similar to how Volpone will disguise himself in front of the Avocatori in the last scene, Sir Politic too disguises himself in front of the Mercatori. Volpone’s own “unveiling” will mirror Politic’s “unveiling” to the Mercatori. Additionally, both characters suffer from an ironic turn of events; Politic will now become “talk for ordinaries,” the butt of one of the numerous gossipy stories he himself enjoys telling, while Volpone is disinherited by the same deception he used to disinherit others. Politic poses as a tortoise, while Volpone poses as a commandadore. Since Jonson frequently associates characters with animals, the tortoise seems like a particularly appropriate choice in this instance, as it is a slow, dimwitted animal that is not quite as appealing as a fox. Furthermore, Politic is just jumped upon and mistreated by the Mercatori, while Volpone will get a pyrrhic victory by revealing Mosca’s deceit. Although Peregrine is portrayed warmly, he plays a comparable role to Mosca in the subplot, turning Sir Politic’s schemes against him. In contrast, Mosca ultimately faces humiliation in front of the Mercatori and receives a sentence that is more severe than Volpone’s. However, Politic’s predicament is absurd due to the total loss of dignity and shame he endures, as well as the reality that this loss of dignity is not actually detrimental. However, this is appropriate; in fact, it might even be advantageous to him if it leads to his leaving Venice. Volpone won’t be as fortunate; Jonson’s sarcasm will be harsher and more merciless with him. We can see that this is justified; Volpone has put the lives of two innocent individuals at peril, but Sir Politic has actually done no harm.
Politic’s position inside the beast-fable that has been a recurring theme in the play is also established in this scene. As we recall from Act One, there is a fox (Volpone), a fly (Mosca) circling it, and three carrion birds7: the raven (Corbaccio), the vulture (Voltore), and the crow (Corvino). In contrast, Politic is a tortoise, a slow-moving, dimwitted creature that carries its home on its back. Similarly, despite his best efforts to be Venetian, Politic is slow, dim-witted, and English. He is therefore a representation of someone who is out of his element; the tortoise is no match for the crafty and predatory beasts of the main plot and will ultimately withdraw into its shell, as Sir Politic appears prepared to do at the play’s conclusion. Therefore, even if Sir Politic is a source of amusement, the play’s English spectators particularly feel pity for him. We start to suspect that Sir Politic’s “English-ness” gives him a preferential status when we compare this to the treatment of the Venetians Volpone and Mosca. He is presented as somewhat innocent because he is the character the audience most likely identifies with (due to his nationality); the foreigners are seen as purposefully evil and deserving of punishment.
Act-V, Scene -v- Scene-ix
Summary
Scene-v: Volpone’s home is now the setting. Volpone enters wearing a commandadore’s (sergeant’s) uniform, while Mosca is dressed as a clarissimo, or great lord. They talk briefly about Volpone’s intention to openly make fun of the people he has deceived. When he departs, Mosca says in a mysterious way that Volpone won’t be reclaiming his identity until he reconciles with Mosca. After giving Nano, Castrone, and Androgyno some cash, he advises them to look for other employment. Mosca makes the cryptic remark that he will either “bury him” or “gain” by Volpone (V.v.14).
Scene-vi: With Corvino and Corbaccio in disguise, the action has now shifted to a street. Volpone is disguised and enters. He starts questioning the two about what they acquired from the deceased magnifico Volpone; their responses are typical aggravation. Volpone aggravates them even more by reminding them of their failed attempts to inherit Volpone’s property, including Corvino’s sex with his wife and Corbaccio’s signing of his own kid against his will. Volpone moves on to his next victim once they depart.
Scene-vii: Walking down the street, Voltore enters, utterly shocked that he has lost the inheritance to the parasite Mosca. Volpone approaches him and starts inquiring about one of his own properties, a tiny “bawdy-house” (V.vii.12), which is akin to a seedy nightclub or whorehouse. He suggests that Voltore should be approached about buying this house and possibly remodeling it because he is the old magnifico’s successor; after all, it is nothing to someone with Voltore’s sudden money and prominence. Voltore becomes enraged at Volpone’s irony and departs. Volpone rejoins Corvino and Corbaccio.
Scene-viii: Watching Mosca walk by in his elegant robes, Corbaccio and Corvino arrive. When Volpone shows up to continue tormenting them, their anger only grows. He then asks if the parasite rumors are accurate. When he finds out that they are, he chastises Corbaccio and Corvino for losing their honor in the process of being so easily conquered by Mosca. Volpone shrewdly backs off when Corvino challenges him to a fight.
Scene-ix: Despite being in summer right now, Voltore threatens Mosca in a mysterious way that his “winter shall come on” (V.ix.1). Mosca warns Voltore from making stupid remarks. Then Volpone shows in and, in an attempt to further humiliate Voltore, asks him if he wants Volpone to beat Mosca in order to exact revenge for the horrible shame Voltore currently bears as a result of being duped by a parasite. He demands to know if Mosca’s inheritance is a joke, which only serves to aggravate the situation. After all, Volpone suggests, a parasite couldn’t have outwitted a lawyer. Tormented and humiliated, Voltore departs.
Analysis
The issue of social class had been treated indirectly in the play through the character of Mosca, forced to be Volpone’s parasite due to his poverty; but Jonson deals with it explicitly here. The Elizabethans had a fairly rigid conception of social class, certainly by today’s standards. Volpone remarks it is a pity that Mosca was not a born a clarissimo, because he plays the part so well; Mosca replies aside that he may very well keep his “made one” (V.v.4), turning Volpone’s comment into a piece of dramatic irony. Mosca puns on the word “made”, hoping to be a self-“made” man, and achieving it through “manufacture” and “fabrication”, two other senses of the word “made”. This implies that Mosca’s social status is now fake, artificial. So Volpone’s lies have resulted in the destabilization of the social order. This destablization is reinforced by the anger Voltore express about being dispossessed by “a parasite! A slave!” (V.vii.1), talking to himself as he walks along the street, seemingly obsessed by it, almost driven to insanity. It is symbolized by Volpone’s own decision to effectively trade in his identity as a nobleman for one as a commandadore, all for the sake of the pleasure of taunting someone for having failed to inherit an estate-ironic (situationally), because he loses that very same estate in the process. In the Elizabethan world-view, the social order embodied in the class system is fundamentally linked to the order of the universe, making any destablization in the class system profoundly disturbing and in need of rectification. But the attitude of the play towards class more complex and potentially contradictory; after all, the people mainly upset by Mosca’s inheritance are the legacy hunters, who are morally dubious; and Mosca behaves no differently than any of the characters of a higher class level than him. In short, it is difficult to determine whether Jonson endorses the Elizabethan idea of class, or actually criticizes it. Further indications will be given in the play’s final scenes; an essay written on this question would be a challenging but interesting one.
Act-V, Scene-x-Scene -xii
Summary
Scene-X: The scene now shifts to the Scrutineo.. We are watching the sentence session for Bonario and Celia as the four judges, the notary, the guards, Bonario, Celia, Corvino, and Corbaccio enter. Voltore and Volpone enter as the judges get ready to pronounce the sentence, with Voltore being distracted by Volpone’s taunting. He asks the judges and the “innocents” Bonario and Celia to pardon him. Then he starts to admit to the falsehood he and Mosca had planned earlier that day. Interrupting him, Corvino requests that the judges disregard Voltore, asserting that the lawyer’s actions are motivated solely by jealously over Mosca’s inheritance of Volpone’s wealth now that Volpone has passed away. Volpone’s “death” surprises the judges. Insisting that he is speaking the truth, Voltore gives the judges what appears to be a handwritten confession. Given that they now think Mosca might be Volpone’s heir and that insulting him would be a serious offense, the judges warily decide to send for him.
Scene-xi: On the street, Volpone strides back and forth. He understands that Voltore’s confession is the consequence of his gloating. He publicly expresses his hope that Mosca will rescue him from this predicament and curses himself for his “wantonness” (V.xi.4), or his compulsive urge to find pleasure in everything. He encounters Castrone, Androgyno, and Nano, who inform him that Mosca grabbed the estate’s keys and told them to go play outdoors. After realizing that Mosca might be trying to keep the estate for himself, Volpone hates his stupidity once more and resolves to try to give Voltore “new hopes” (V.xi.21), or, to put it another way, persuade the lawyer that Volpone is still alive and could still receive the land.
Scene-xii: The judges at the Scrutineo are completely perplexed. Corvino still insists that Voltore is possessed by a demon, but Voltore and Celia swear that Voltore is speaking the truth. Still disguised, Volpone arrives and tells the judges that the parasite (Mosca) would be there shortly. Then, he turns to whisper in Voltore’s ear. He informs Voltore that Mosca, the guard Volpone poses as, has told him that Volpone is still alive and that the fictitious death was a test of Voltore’s will. Voltore is disappointed to learn that he has failed. However, Volpone advises that Voltore may still demonstrate his loyalty if he supports Corvino’s claim that he is possessed by collapsing to the ground and writhing on the floor; Voltore quickly complies. Volpone instructs everyone to take a step back and asks whether they see the demon flying out Voltore’s mouth. Of course, there isn’t a demon; this is just another of Volpone’s ruses. “Where am I?” asks Voltore. (V.xii.34), and asserts that his confession is untrue even though it is written in his handwriting. Following the collapse, Voltore claims that Mosca is equally innocent as Volpone, who the attorney further claims is still alive. Volpone’s life appears to be going smoothly until Mosca walks in. Mosca declines to substantiate Voltore’s assertion that Volpone is still alive. As he speaks, Mosca says the funeral arrangements are under progress. Volpone is taken aback. Volpone states he would sooner “be hanged” (V.xii.63) than break this agreement when Mosca offers to help him for half of his riches. Still wearing his disguise, Volpone tells the court that he is still alive while saying that he has given in to Mosca’s demand for half, but Mosca is now refusing to accept even this concession. Volpone is dragged away to be lashed for his impudence when he maintains that he is still alive, which is in direct opposition to Mosca. Volpone comes clean to the Senate after realizing that he has nothing else to do because a formal will has been made. The judges grant Bonario and Celia their release after realizing they have been duped. They imprison Volpone and sentence Mosca to life as a galley slave for posing as a Venetian nobleman. Corbaccio loses all of his belongings, which are given to Bonario, Voltore is disbarred, and Corvino is sent to public humiliation by being rowed through Venice’s canals while wearing donkey’s ears. At the end of the scene, the audience is kindly asked to applaud in order to express their admiration for the performance.
Analysis
Jonson’s administration of punishment to his characters parallels that of Lady Politic’s less favored Italian poet, Dante Alighieri (III.iv). The avaricious Corbaccio loses his estate, Corvino, who acts foolishly throughout the play, is symbolically turned into an ass, and Volpone, who feigned illness to indulge his insatiable appetites, will now be permanently incapacitated, remaining unable to fulfill his desires for Celia or anything else. The alignment of punishment with guilt in a lyrical and imaginative manner resembles Dante’s contrapasso, utilized in Inferno, the first book of his Divine Comedy. The punishments, both there and here, aim to encapsulate the intrinsic nature of the crime; in essence, Volpone’s avarice for pleasure and self-indulgence rendered him a captive of his impulses, destined for frustration in his pursuits long before he was physically restrained. The judge, upon imposing these penalties, underscores their instructive intent: “Take heart, and love to study ’em” (V.xii.150), he remarks regarding the punishments. His analogy of vices to “beasts” (151) evokes the fable-like quality of Volpone, aligning with the notion that the judge is presenting a clear, concise moral to the narrative. However, certain issues with the conclusion of Volpone may undermine the moral message that Jonson has consistently conveyed up to this point. The protagonist’s dilemma exists. This is a comedy, and protagonists in comedies typically conclude with a sense of happiness. The sole characters who ultimately attain happiness are Celia and Bonario; yet, these figures are somewhat underdeveloped, eliciting significantly less emotional investment than Volpone, who appears to be a far more suitable choice for the protagonist. However, the conclusion is somewhat harsh for a comedy, as we are not presented with fully developed characters to empathize with and support towards a favorable finale. This severity is dictated by Jonson’s intention in composing the play, which aimed not merely to entertain but also to instruct. Although Jonson grants prominence to Volpone and Mosca throughout the play, the concluding scene conveys that despite their intrigue and apparent sympathy, they ultimately merit the punishment they will inevitably receive. Volpone becomes particularly sympathetic near the conclusion of the play, when the sole individual he trusts betrays him. He successfully executes the redemptive act of disclosing his identity, so rescuing Bonario and Celia, but this may be driven more by a desire for vengeance against Mosca or a need to reaffirm his own identity than by any ethical considerations. The moral lesson of the play is indeed reinforced by the punishment of a sympathetic character for his wrongdoing, as our empathy prompts us to sympathize with Volpone and examine that vice within ourselves. The unequivocal disaster of Volpone’s predicament—his impending life sentence—has been noted to impart sad undertones to the play. A further issue emerges with the judges themselves. They are assigned the responsibility of administering the penalties at the conclusion of the play, distributing Jonson’s poetic justice. However, Jonson completely satirizes them in their handling of Mosca. Believing Mosca to be affluent, they accord him the highest respect and courtesy, with one judge aspiring to unite his daughter in marriage to him. However, after it is revealed that he possesses no lineage, he endures the most severe penalty of any transgressor, “for lacking noble birth or blood” (V.xii.112). The third judge exemplifies dramatic irony when he asserts that Volpone ought to be “taught [how] to bear himself/ Towards a person of his [an equal or higher] rank” (V.xii.79–80). At this juncture of the play, rank holds paramount significance; nonetheless, it appears that rank is ultimately dictated by wealth. Due to his severe sentence and his confrontation with Volpone in the last scene, Mosca emerges as a primary contender for the play’s antagonist; yet, the actions of the judges do not contradict, but rather substantiate, Mosca’s assertion in Act Three that the “wise” world is “nothing but parasites.” The judges treat him nicely when they perceive the potential for financial benefit, but once it becomes evident that such prospects are unattainable, they subject him to maltreatment. Jonson’s conflict with the judges is evident; he desires his performance to uphold the qualities esteemed by Celia and Bonario, including dignity and piety. He seeks a consistent application of irony, directed against a specific set of values—those of Volpone (see to Act I.i)—in support of the values upheld by Celia and Bonario; this represents a conservative form of irony, as it invokes a traditional conception of virtue while critiquing the contemporary notions espoused by Volpone. However, the Venetian state, as he depicts it (and we recognize this closely reflected his perspective on English society at the time), was permeated with parasitism from top to bottom; in Jonson’s view, everyone was a Mosca, or at least everyone wielding influence, including figures of wisdom like as the judges. An conclusion in which Celia and Bonario are punished while Volpone and Mosca evade consequences would contradict the play’s pedagogical intent; depicting virtue’s defeat by vice does not render virtue the more appealing choice. Consequently, Jonson is compelled to temper his consistently disparaging depiction of Venetian society to ensure that Celia and Bonario ultimately prevail. This compromise may elucidate the discontent stemming from the conclusion, which feels overly contrived and inconsistent with the remainder of the play.